Abstract
Recently, scientists have a high interest in using micro- and nanofibrillated cellulose (MFC/NFC) fibers as reinforcing components in nanocomposites together with a biopolymer matrix. This interest is abstracted from the abundant availability of cellulose in nature and the need for renewable resources. Besides chemical aspects, however, the successful formulation of polymer blends with nanocellulose additives requires a good understanding of the physical compounding and mixing properties. Therefore, the rheological features of aqueous MFC and NFC suspensions play an important role for the further development of industrial applications. Generally, the MFC/NFC suspensions show nonlinear behavior in the form of a pseudoplastic or dilatant fluid at higher shear rates. There are different parameters affecting their rheological behavior including processing parameters, such as degree of fibrillation and concentration, and rheometrical parameters, such as shear rate, temperature, rheometer geometry (gap), wall slip, and flocculation. Controlling these parameters is very important before and after the processing of MFC or NFC due to the direct or indirect effects on the viscosity of the suspension. The aggregation of fibrillated cellulose is a conventional barrier to obtain suitable dispersive mixing and an important reason for the loss of mechanical properties of nanocomposites. As outlined in this chapter, better physical understanding of the rheological behavior of MFC or NFC is helpful for further processing of polymer blends by melt extrusion, injection molding, or electrospinning. A better rheological insight helps to control the processing of nanocomposites and avoid the named issues.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abdul Khalil APS, Bhat AH, Ireana Yusra AF (2012) Green composites from sustainable cellulose nanofibrils: a review. Carbohydr Polym 87:963–979
Agoda-Tandjawa G, Durand S, Berot S, Blassel C, Gaillard C, Garnier C (2010) Rheological characterization of microfibrillated cellulose suspensions after freezing. Carbohydr Polym 80(3):677–686
Agoda-Tandjawa G, Durand S, Gaillard C, Garnier C, Doublier JL (2012) Rheological behaviour and microstructure of microfibrillated cellulose suspensions/low-methoxyl pectin mixed systems. Carbohydr Polym 87:1045–1057
Ahola S, Myllytie P, Österberg M, Teerinen T, Laine J (2008) Effect of polymer adsorption on cellulose nanofibril water binding capacity and aggregation. Bioresources 3:1315–1328
Ajayan PM, Schadler LS, Braun PV (2003) Nanocomposite science and technology. Wiley, Weinheim
Alemdar A, Sain M (2008a) Isolation and characterization of nanofibres from agricultural residues-wheat straw and soy hulls. Bioresour Technol 99:1664–1671
Alila S, Besbas I, Vilar MR, Mutjé P, Boufi S (2013) Non-woody plants as raw materials for production of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC): A comparative study. Ind Crops Prod 41:250–259
Araki J, Wada M, Kuga S, Okano T (1998) Flow properties of microcrystalline cellulose suspension prepared by acid treatment of native cellulose. Colloid Surf A 142:75–82
Barnes HA (1995) A review of the slip (wall depletion) of polymer solutions, emulsions and particle suspensions in viscometers: its cause, character, and cure. J Non-Newton Fluid Mech 56:221–251
Barnes HA (1997) Thixotropy: a review. J Non-Newton Fluid Mech 70:1–33
Bendahou A, Kaddami H, Dufresne A (2010) Investigation on the effect of cellulosic nanoparticles’ morphology on the properties of natural rubber based nanocomposites. Eur Polym J 46:609–620
Bhattacharya D, Germinario LT, Winter WT (2008) Isolation, preparation and characterization of cellulose microfibers obtained from bagasse. Carbohydr Polym 73(3):371–377
Boissard CIR, Bourban PE, Plummer CJG, Neagu RC, Månson JAE (2012) Cellular biocomposites from polylactide and microfibrillated cellulose. J Cellular Plast 48(5):445–458
Bulian F, Graystone JA (2009) Properties of wood coatings-testing and characterisation. In: Bulian F, Graystone JA (eds) Wood coatings. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 155–194
Bulota M, Kreitsmann K, Hughes M, Paltakari J (2012) Acetylated microfibrillated cellulose as toughening agent in polylactic acid. J Appl Polym Sci 126:448–457
Celzard A, Fierro V, Kerekes R (2009) Flocculation of cellulose fibers: new comparison of crowding factor with percolation and effective-medium theories. Cellulose 16:983–987
Charani PR, Firouzabadi MD, Afra E, Shakeri A (2013) Rheological characterization of high concentrated MFC gel from kenaf unbleached pulp. Cellulose 20:727–740
Chen X, Guo Q, Mi Y (1998) Bamboo fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites: a study of the mechanical properties. J Appl Polym Sci 69:1891–1899
Cheng DC (1986) Yield stress: a time-dependent property and how to measure it. Rheol Acta 25:542–554
Chinga-Carrasco G (2011) Cellulose fibres, nanofibrils and microfibrils: the morphological sequence of MFC components from a plant physiology and fibre technology point of view. Nanoscale Res Lett 6:417
Cho SY, Park HH, Yun YS, Jin HJ (2013) Influence of cellulose nanofibers on the morphology and physical properties of poly(lactic acid) foaming by supercritical carbon dioxide. Macromol Res 21(5):529–533
Cobut A, Sehaqui H, Berglund LA (2014) Cellulose nanocomposites by melt compounding of TEMPO-treated wood fibers in thermoplastic starch matrix. Bioresources 9(2):3276–3289
Cristobal C, Encarnacion R, Ignacio B, Maria JN, Eulogio C (2006) Enhanced enzymatic hydrolysis of olive tree wood by steam explosion and alkaline peroxide delignification. Process Biochem 41:423–429
Das M, Chakraborty D (2006) Influence of alkali treatment on the fine structure and morphology of bamboo fibers. J Appl Polym Sci 102:5050–5056
Das M, Chakraborty D (2007) Role of mercerization of the bamboo strips on the impact properties and morphology of unidirectional bamboo strips-novolac composites. Polym Compos 28:57–60
Das M, Pal A, Chakraborty D (2006) Effects of mercerization of bamboo strips on mechanical properties of unidirectional bamboo-novolac composites. J Appl Polym Sci 100:238–244
Dealy M, Wissbrun KF (1999) Melt rheology and its role in plastic processing theory and application. Kluwer, Dordrecht
Derakhshandeh B, Hatzikiriakos SG, Bennington CPJ (2010) The apparent yield stress of pulp fiber suspensions. J Rheol 54:1137–1154
Dhont JKG, Briels WJ (2003) Viscoelasticity of suspensions of long, rigid rods. Colloid Surf A 213:131–156
Dinand E, Chanzy H, Vignon MR (1996) Parenchymal cell cellulose from sugar beet pulp: preparation and properties. Cellulose 3:183–188
Diotallevi F, Mulder B (2007) The cellulose synthase complex: a polymerization driven supramolecular motor. Biophys J 92:2666–2673
Djafari Petroudy SR, Syverud K, Chinga-Carrasco G, Ghasemain A, Resalati H (2014) Effects of bagasse microfibrillated cellulose and cationic polyacrylamide on key properties of bagasse paper. Carbohydr Polym 99:311–318
Duan X, Xu J, He B, Li J, Sun Y (2011) Preparation and rheological properties of cellulose/chitosan homogeneous solution in ionic liquid. Bioresources 6(4):4640–4651
Duanmu J, Gamstedt EK, Rosling A (2012) Bulk composites from microfibrillated cellulose-reinforced thermoset starch made from enzymatically degraded allyl glycidyl ether-modified starch. J Compos Mater 46:3201–3208
Dufresne A (2010) Processing of polymer nanocomposites reinforced with polysaccharide nanocrystals. Molecules 15:4111–4128
Dufresne A (2012) Nanocellulose from nature to high performance tailored materials. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin
Ferreira AM, Carvalho AJF (2014) TPS nanocomposite reinforced by MFC by melting process. Materials Research (in press)
Fortunato G, Zimmermann T, Lübben J, Bordeanu N, Hufenus R (2012) Reinforcement of polymeric submicrometer-sized fibers by microfibrillated cellulose. Macromol Mater Eng 297:576–584
Frenot A, Henriksson MW, Walkenström P (2007) Electrospinning of cellulose-based nanofibers. J Appl Polym Sci 103(3):1473–1482
Fujisawa S, Okita Y, Fukuzumi H, Saito T, Isodai A (2011) Preparation and characterization of TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibril films with free carboxyl groups. Carbohydr Polym 84:579–583
Goffin AL, Raquez JM, Duquesne E, Siqueira G, Habibi Y, Dufresne A, Dubois Ph (2011) Poly(ɛ-caprolactone) based nanocomposites reinforced by surface-grafted cellulose nanowhiskers via extrusion processing: morphology, rheology, and thermo-mechanical properties. Polymer 52:1532–1538
Goldsmith HL, Mason SG (1967) The microrheology of dispersions. In: Eirich FR (ed) Rheology: theory and applications, vol 4. Academic Press, New York, pp 85–250
Goussé C, Chanzy H, Cerrada ML, Fleury E (2004) Surface silylation of cellulose microfibtrils: preparation and rheological properties. Polymer 45:1569–1575
Grüneberger F, Kunniger T, Zimmermann T, Arnold M (2014) Rheology of nanofibrillated cellulose/acrylate systems for coating applications. Cellulose 21:1313–1326
Haavisto S, Liukkonen J, Jäsberg A, Koponen A, Lille M, Salmela J (2011) Laboratory-scale pipe rheometry: a study of microfibrillated cellulose suspensions. Proc Papercon 2011:704–717
Haavisto S, Koponen A, Salmela J (2014) New insight into rheology and flow properties of complex fluids with Doppler optical coherence tomography. Front Chem 27:1–6
Habibi Y, Vignon MR (2007) Optimization of cellouronic acid synthesis by TEMPO-mediated oxidation of cellulose III from sugar beet pulp. Cellulose 15(1):177–185
Han SO, Son WK, Youk JH, Park WH (2008) Electrospinning of ultrafine cellulose fibers and fabrication of poly(butylene succinate) biocomposites reinforced by them. J Appl Polym Sci 107(3):1954–1959
Härdelin L, Thunberg J, Perzon E, Westman G, Walkenström P, Gatenholm P (2011) Electrospinning of cellulose nanofibers from ionic liquids: The effect of different cosolvents. J Appl Polym Sci 125:1901–1909. doi:10.1002/app.36323
Hassan ML, Hassan EA, Oksman KN (2011) Effect of pretreatment of bagasse fibers on the properties of chitosan/microfibrillated cellulose nanocomposites. J Mater Sci 46:1732–1740
Herrick FW, Casebier RL, Hamilton JK, Sandberg KR (1983) Microfibrillat cellulose: morphology and accessibility. J Appl Polym Sci Polym Symp 37:797–813
Hill RJ (2008) Elastic modulus of microfibrillar cellulose gels. Biomacromolecules 9:2963–2966
Hlisnikovská K, Järnström L (2011) Polymer adsorption on nano fibrillar cellulose and its effects on suspension rheology. TAPPI international conference on nanotechnology for renewable materials
Hubbe MA (2007) Flocculation and redispersion of cellulosic fiber suspension: a review of effects of hydrodynamic shear and polyelectrolyte. Bioresources 2:296–331
Hubbe MA, Rojas OJ, Lucia LA, Sain M (2008) Cellulosic nanocomposites: a review. Bioresources 3:929–980
Iotti M, Gregersen Ø, Moe S, Lenes M (2011) Rheological studies of microfibrillar cellulose water dispersions. J Polym Environ 19(1):137–145
Iwamoto S, Lee SH, Endo T (2014) Relationship between aspect ratio and suspension viscosity of wood cellulose nanofibers. Polym J 46:73–76
Janardhnan S, Sain M (2011) Targeted disruption of hydroxyl chemistry and crystallinity in natural fibers for the isolation of cellulose nano-fibers via enzymatic treatment. Bioresources 6(2):1242–1250
Jonoobi M, Harun J, Mathew AP, Oksman K (2010) Mechanical properties of cellulose nanofiber (CNF) reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) prepared by twin screw extrusion. Compos Sci Technol 70:1742–1747
Jonoobi M, Mathew AP, Abdi MM, Davoodi Makinejad M, Oksman K (2012) A comparison of modified and unmodified cellulose nanofiber reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) prepared by twin screw extrusion. J Polym Environ 20:991–997
Jowkarderis L, Van de Ven TGM (2014) Intrinsic viscosity of aqueous suspensions of cellulose nanofibrils. Cellulose 21:2511–2517
Karppinen A, Vesterinen AH, Saarinen T, Inen PP, Seppälaä J (2011) Effect of cationic polymethacrylates on the rheology and flocculation of microfibrillated cellulose. Cellulose 18:1381–1390
Karppinen A, Saarinen T, Salmela J, Laukkanen A, Nuopponen M, Seppälä J (2012) Flocculation of microfibrillated cellulose in shear flow. Cellulose 19(6):1807–1819
Kaushik A, Singh M, Verma G (2010) Green nanocomposites bades on thermoplastic startch and steam exploded cellulose nanofibrils from whear straw. Carbohydr Polym 63:337–345
Klemm D, Heublein B, Fink HP, Bohn A (2005) Cellulose: fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material. Angew Chem Int Ed 44:3358–3393
Klemm D, Kramer F, Moritz S, Lindström T, Ankerfors M, Gray D, Dorris A (2011) Nanocelluloses: a new family of nature- based materials. Angew Chem Int Ed 50(24):5438–5466
Kopania E, Wietecha J, Ciechańska D (2012) Studies on isolation of cellulose fibres from waste plant biomass. Fibers Text East Eur 6B(96):167–172
Korhonen M, Sorvari A, Saarinen T, Seppälä J, Laine J (2014) Deflocculation of cellulosic suspensions with anionic high molecular weight polyelectrolytes. Bioresources 9:3550–3570
Kumar H, Siddaramaiah (2005) Study of chemical and tensile properties of polyurethane and polyurethane/polyacrylonitrile coated bamboo fibers. J Reinf Plast Compos 24(2):209–213
Kumar H, Siddaramaiah, Roopa S (2005) Chemical and tensile properties of unsaturated polyester and polyacrylonitrile semi-interpenetrating polymer network coated bamboo fibers. J Reinf Plast Compos 24(2):215–218
Larson RG (1999) The structure and rheology of complex fluids. Oxford University, New York
Lasseuguette E, Roux D, Nishiyama Y (2008) Rheological properties of microfibrillar suspension of TEMPO-oxidized pulp. Cellulose 15:425–433
Lavoine N, Desloges I, Dufresne A, Bras J (2012) Microfibrillated cellulose—Its barrier properties and applications in cellulosic materials: a review. Carbohydr Polym 90:735–764
Lee SH, Wang S (2006) Biodegradable polymers/bamboo fiber biocomposite with biobased coupling agent. Composites A 37:80–91
Lemahieu L, Bras J, Tiquet P, Augier S, Dufresne A (2011) Extrusion of nanocellulose-reinforced nanocomposites using the dispersed nano-objects protective encapsulation (DOPE) process. Macromol Mater Eng 296(11):984–991
Li J, Wei X, Wang Q, Chen J, Chang G, Kong L, Su J, Liu Y (2012) Homogeneous isolation of nanocellulose from sugarcane bagasse by high pressure homogenization. Carbohydr Polym 90:1609–1613
Liu D, Chen X, Yue Y, Chen M, Wu Q (2011) Structure and rheology of nanocrystalline cellulose. Carbohydr Polym 84:316–322
Lönnberg H, Larsson K, Lindström T, Hult A, Malmström E (2011) Synthesis of polycaprolactonegrafted microfibrillated cellulose for use in novel bionanocomposites -Influence of the graft length on the mechanical properties. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 3:1426–1433
Lönnberg H, Larsson K, Lindström T, Hult A, Malmström E (2011) Synthjesis of plycaprolactone-grafted microfibrillated cellulose for use in novel biocomposites. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 3:1426–1433
Loranger E, Piché AO, Daneault C (2012) Influence of high shear dispersion on the production of cellulose nanofibers by ultrasound-assisted TEMPO-oxidation of kraft pulp. Nanomaterials 2:286–297
Lowys MP, Desbrieres J, Rinaudo M (2001) Rheological characterization of cellulosic microfibril suspensions: role of polymeric additives. Food Hydrocoll 15:25–32
Lu J, Drzal LT (2008) Preparation and properties of microfibrillated cellulose polyvinyl alcohol composite materials. Compos A 39:738–746
Mabrouk AB, Magnin A, Belgacem MN, Boufi S (2011) Melt rheology of nanocomposites based on acrylic copolymer and cellulose whiskers. Comp Sci Tech 71:818–827
Martinez DG, Stading M, Hermansson AM (2012) Correlation between viscoelasticity and microstructure of a hierarchical soft composite based on nanocellulose and carrageenan. Ann Trans Nord Rheol Soc 20:117–121
Mewis J, Wagner NJ (2009a) Current trends in suspension rheology. J Non-Newton Fluid Mech 157:147–150
Mewis J, Wagner NJ (2009b) Thixotropy. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 147–148:214–227
Mewis J, Wagner NJ (2012) Colloidal suspension rheology. Cambridge University Press, New York
Mi Y, Chen X, Guo Q (1997) Bamboo fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites: crystallization and interfacial morphology. J Appl Polym Sci 64:1267–1273
Missoum K, Belgacem N, Krouit M, Martin C, Tapin-Lingua S, Bras J (2010) Influence of fibrillation degree and surface grafting of microfibrillated cellulose on their rheological behavior in aqueous suspension. TAPPI Nanotechnology conference for the forest product industry
Miyauchi M, Miao J, Simmons TJ, Lee JW, Doherty TV, Dordick JS, Linhardt RJ (2010) Conductive cable fibers with insulating surface prepared by coaxial electrospinning of multiwalled nanotubes and cellulose. Biomacromolecules 11(9):2440–2445
Moberg T, Rigdahl M, Stading M, Bragd EL (2014) Extensional viscosity of microfibrillated cellulose suspensions. Carbohydr Polym 102:409–412
Mohtaschemi M, Dimic-Misic K, Puisto A, Korhonen M, Maloney T, Paltakari J, Alava MJ (2014) Rheological characterization of fibrillated cellulose suspensions via bucket vane viscometer. Cellulose 21:1305–1312
Murali K, Rao M, Rao KM (2007) Extraction and tensile properties of natural fibers: vakka, date and bamboo. Compos Struct 77:288–295
Naderi A, Lindström T (2014) Carboxymethylated nanofibrillated cellulose: effect of monovalent electrolytes on the rheological properties. Cellulose 21:3507–3514. doi:10.1007/s10570–014-0394–0
Naderi A, Lindström T, Sundström J (2014) Carboxymethylated nanofibrillated cellulose: rheological studies. Cellulose 21:1561–1571
Nakagaito AN, Fujimura A, Sakai T, Hama Y, Yano H (2009) Production of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)-reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) nanocomposites from sheets obtained by a papermaking-like process. Comp Sci Technol 69:1293–1297
Nechita P, Panaitescu DM (2013) Improving the dispersibility of cellulose microfibrillated structures in a polymer matrix by controlling drying conditions and chemical surface modifications. Cell Chem Technol 47:711–719
Nechyporchuk O, Belgacem MN, Pignon F (2014) Rheological properties of micro-/nanofibrillated cellulose suspensions: wall-slip and shear banding phenomena. Carbohydr Polym 112:432–439
Newman RH (2004) Carbon-13 NMR evidence for cocrystallization of cellulose as a mechanism for hornification of bleached kraft pulp. Cellulose 11:46–52
Nguyen HD, Mai TT, Nguyen NB, Dang TD, Le ML, Dang TT, Tran VM (2013) A novel method for preparing microfibrillated cellulose from bamboo fibers. Adv Nat Sci Nanosci Nanotechnol 4:015016(9p)
Okubo K, Fujii T, Yamamoto Y (2004) Development of bamboo-based polymer composites and their mechanical properties. Compos A 35:377–383
Okubo K, Fujii T, Thostenson ET (2009) Multi-scale hybrid biocomposite: processing and mechanical characterization of bamboo fiber reinforced PLA with microfibrillated cellulose. Compos A 40:469–475
Ono H, Shimaya Y, Sato K, Hongo T (2004) 1H spin–spin relaxation time of water and rheological properties of cellulose nanofiber dispersion, transparent cellulose hydrogel (TCG). Polym J 36:684–694
O’Sullivan AC (1997) Cellulose: the structure slowly unravels. Cellulose 4:173–207
Paakko M, Ankerfors M, Kosonen H, Nykanen A, Ahola S, Osterberg M (2007) Enzymatic hydrolysis combined with mechanical shearing and high-pressure homogenization for nanoscale cellulose fibrils and strong gels. Biomacromolecules 8:1934–1941
Peng Y, Gardner DJ, Han Y (2011) Drying cellulose nanofibrils: in search of a suitable method. Cellulose 19:91–102. doi: 10.1007/s10570–011-9630-z
Peng Y, Han Y, Gardner DJ (2012) Spray-drying cellulose nanofibrils: effect of drying process parameters on particle morphology and size distribution. Wood Fiber Sci 44:1–14
Phiriyawirut M, Chotirat N, Phromsiri S, Lohapaisarn I (2010) Preparation and properties of natural rubber-cellulose microfibril nanocomposite films. Adv Mater Res 93–94:328–331
Plummer CJ, Choo CK, Boissard C, Bourban P, Manson JA (2013) Morphological investigation of polylactide/microfibrillated cellulose composites. Colloid Polym Sci 291:2203–2211
Puisto A, Illa X, Mohtaschemi M, Alava M (2012) Modeling the rheology of nanocellulose suspensions. Nord Pulp Paper Res J 27:277–281
Qi H, Sui X, Yuan J, Wei Y, Zhang L (2010) Electrospinning of cellulose-based fibers from NaOH/Urea aqueous system. Macromol Mater Eng 295(8):695–700
Rajulu AV, Rao BR, Reddy RL, Sanjeevi R (2001) Chemical resistance and tensile properties of epoxy/polycarbonate blend coated bamboo fibres. J Reinf Plast Compos 20(4):335–340
Rastogi VK, Samyn P (2014) Novel production method for in-situ hydrophobization of a microfibrillated cellulose network. Mater Lett 120:196–199
Rezayati Charani P, Dehghani-Firouzabadi M, Afra E, Blademo Å, Naderi A, Lindström T (2013) Production of microfibrillated cellulose from unbleached kraft pulp of Kenaf and Scotch Pine and its effect on the properties of hardwood kraft: microfibrillated cellulose paper. Cellulose 20:2559–2567
Saarikoski E, Saarinen T, Salmela J, Seppälä J (2012) Flocculated flow of microfibrillated cellulose water suspensions: an imaging approach for characterisation of rheological behavior. Cellulose 19(3):647–659
Saarinen T, Haavisto S, Sorvari A, Salmela J, Seppala J (2014) The effect of wall depletion on the rheology of microfibrillated cellulose water suspensions by optical coherence tomography. Cellulose 21:1261–1275
Saito T, Nishiyama Y, Putaux J-L, Vignon M, Isogai A (2006) Homogeneous suspensions of individualized microfibrils from TEMPO-catalyzed oxidation of native cellulose. Biomacromolecules 7(6):1687–1691
Salmela J, Haavisto S, Koponen A, Ja ¨sberg A, Kataja M (2013) Rheological characterization of micro-fibrillated cellulose fiber suspension using multi scale velocity profile measurements. Advances in pulp and paper research, 15th fundamental research symposium, Cambridge, England
Saxena M, Gowri VS (2003) Studies on bamboo polymer composites with polyester amide polyol as interfacial agent. Polym Compos 24(3):428–436
Shafiei-Sabet S, Hamad WY, Hatzikiriakos SG (2012) Rheology of nano-crystalline nellulose aqueous suspensions. Langmuir 28:17124–17133
Shumigin D, Tarasova E, Krumme A, Meier P (2011) Rheological and mechanical properties of poly(lactic) acid/cellulose and LDPE/cellulose composites. Mater Sci 17(1):32–37
Siddiqui N, Mills RH, Gardner DJ, Bousfield D (2011) Production and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from wood pulp. J Adhes Sci Technol 25(6–7):709–721
Siqueira G, Tadokoro SK, Mathew AP, Oksman K (2010) Carrot nanofibers and nanocomposites applications. 7th international symposium on natural polymers and composites, Gramado, Brazil
Siró I, Plackett D (2010) Microfibrillated cellulose and new nanocomposite materials: a review. Cellulose 17:459–494
Spence KL, Venditti RA, Rojas OJ, Habibi Y, Pawlak JJ (2011) A comparative study of energy consumption and physical properties of microfibrillated cellulose produced by different processing methods. Cellulose 18:1097–1111
Šutka A, Kukle S, Gravitis J (2013) An environmentally friendly method for microfibrillated cellulose extraction from hemp. In: Proceedings of 10th international conference of young scientists on energy issues, Lithuania, Kaunas, 29–31 May 2013. (Kaunas: Lithuanian Energy Institute, 2013, pp. 81–86. ISSN 1822–7554)
Suzuki K, Sato A, Okumura H, Hushimoto T, Nakagito AN, Yano H (2014) Novel high-strength microfibrillated cellulose reinforced polypropylene composites using a cationic polymer as compatibilizer. Cellulose 21:507–518
Taipele T, Österberg M, Nykänen A, Ruokolainen J, Laine J (2010) Effect of microfibrillated cellulose and fines on the drainage of kraft pulp suspension and paper strength. Cellulose 17:1005–1020
Takagi H, Ichihara Y (2004) Effect of fiber length on mechanical properties of ‘‘Green” composites using a starch-based resin and short bamboo fibers. JSME Int J Ser A Solid Mech Mater Eng 47:551–555
Tanpichai S, Quero F, Nogi M, Yano H, Young RJ, Lindström T, Sampson WW, Eichhorn SJ (2012) Effective young’s modulus of bacterial and microfibrillated cellulose fibrils in fibrous networks. Biomacromolecules 13(5):1340–1349
Tatsumi D, Ishioka S, Matsumoto T (2002) Effect of fiber concentration and axial ratio on the rheological properties of cellulose fiber suspensions. J Soc Rheol Jpn 30:27–32
Tingaut P, Zimmermann T (2011) Functional polymer nanocomposite materials from microfibrillated cellulose, In: Nanocomposites, Editor: Abbass Hashim, Editions InTech (ISBN 978-953-308-55-0)
Urena-Benavides EE, Ao G, Davis VA, Kitchens CL (2011) Rheology and phase behavior of lyotropic cellulose nanocrystal suspensions. Macromolecules 44:8990–8998
Wicaksono R, Syamsy K, Yuliasih I, Nasir M (2013) Cellulose nanofibers from cassava bagasse: characterization and application on tapioca film. Chem Mater Res 3:79–87
Wierenga AM, Philipse AP (1998) Low-shear viscosity of isotropic dispersions of (Brownian) rods and fibres: a review of theory and experiments. Colloid Surf A 137:355–372
Wiklund J, Stading M (2006) Application of in-line ultrasound Doppler based UVP-PD method to concentrated model and industrial suspensions. In: Proceedings of 5th international symposium on ultrasonic doppler methods for fluid mechanics and fluid engineering, Zürich, 12–14 Sept 2006, pp 145–148
Zepic V, Fabjan E, Kasynic M, Korosec RC, Hancic A, Oven P, Perse LS (2014) Morphological, thermal, and structural aspects of dried and redispersed nanofibrillated cellulose. Holzforschung 68:657–667
Zhao N, Mark LH, Zhu C, Park CB, Li Q, Glenn R, Thompson TR (2014) Foaming poly(vinyl alcohol)/microfibrillated cellulose composites with CO2 and water as co-blowing agents. Ind Eng Chem Res 53:11962–11972
Zhou C, Wu Q, Zhang Q (2011) Dynamic rheological studies of in-situ polymerization process of polyacrylamide-cellulose nanocrystal composite hydrogels. Colloid Polym Sci 289:247–255
Zhu AJ, Sternstein SS (2003) Nonlinear viscoelasticity of nanofilled polymers: interfaces, chain statistics and properties recovery kinetics. Comp Sci Tech 63:1113–1126
Zimmermann T, Bordeanu N, Strub E (2010) Properties of nanofibrillated cellulose from different raw materials and its reinforcement potential. Carbohydr Polym 79:1086–1093
Zirnsak MA, Hur DU, Boger DV (1994) Normal stresses in fibre suspensions. J Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech 54:153–193
Zuluaga R, Putaux JL, Restrepo A, Mondragon I, Gañán P (2007) Cellulose microfibrils from banana farming residues: isolation and characterization. Cellulose 14(6):585–592
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Robert Bosch Foundation in the framework of Sustainable Use of Natural Materials 2011–2016 (“Foresnab”-project) and Junior professoren programm Baden-Württemberg 2012–2015 (“NaCoPa”-project).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Taheri, H., Samyn, P. (2015). Rheological Properties and Processing of Polymer Blends with Micro- and Nanofibrillated Cellulose. In: Hakeem, K., Jawaid, M., Y. Alothman, O. (eds) Agricultural Biomass Based Potential Materials. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13847-3_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13847-3_13
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-13846-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-13847-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)