Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Prevention and Treatment of Childhood Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Metabolic Syndrome

  • 467 Accesses

Abstract

Obesity remains a significant public health issue in the United States with nearly one-fifth of children and one-third of adults being obese. Particularly in the pediatric population, much emphasis is placed on prevention in addition to treatment of obesity. Lifestyle modifications remain the first line of intervention both for prevention and treatment of pediatric obesity. Numerous studies indicate that risk factors for obesity develop prior to conception and continue throughout childhood. Prenatally, parental weight, maternal smoking, and mode of delivery all influence later obesity risk. Feeding style during infancy, including both breastfeeding and the timing of complementary feeds, is associated with differential risk for later obesity. Furthermore, the presence or lack of appropriate nutrition, exercise, and intervention programs at school impact risk for obesity. Unlike in the adult population, there is evidence for sustained positive effects from lifestyle interventions for treatment of obesity in the pediatric population. Many intervention studies have been performed to study the effects of dietary changes, increased physical activity, behavioral, and family centered interventions on pediatric overweight and obesity. When conventional strategies for weight management are insufficient, pharmacologic and surgical options are appropriate for the treatment of both obesity and the associated metabolic syndrome. Orlistat remains the only FDA-approved treatment option in childhood obesity, but several other options have been and continue to be investigated in research trials. Bariatric surgery is recommended cautiously at this time in only a subset of adolescents, and when pursued, a multidisciplinary team approach is recommended.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aarsen FK, van den Akker EL, Drop SL, Catsman-Berrevoets CE (2006) Effect of topiramate on cognition in obese children. Neurology 67 (7):1307–1308. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000238099.36998.6b

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Al Mamun A, Lawlor DA, Alati R, O’Callaghan MJ, Williams GM, Najman JM (2006) Does maternal smoking during pregnancy have a direct effect on future offspring obesity? Evidence from a prospective birth cohort study. American journal of epidemiology 164 (4):317–325. doi:10.1093/aje/kwj209

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alqahtani AR, Elahmedi MO (2015) Pediatric Bariatric Surgery: The Clinical Pathway. Obesity surgery. doi:10.1007/s11695-015-1586-x

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Antonogeorgos G, Panagiotakos DB, Papadimitriou A, Priftis KN, Anthracopoulos M, Nicolaidou P (2012) Breakfast consumption and meal frequency interaction with childhood obesity. Pediatric obesity 7 (1):65–72. doi:10.1111/j.2047-6310.2011.00006.x

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atabek ME, Pirgon O (2008) Use of metformin in obese adolescents with hyperinsulinemia: a 6-month, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism: JPEM 21 (4):339–348

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • August GP, Caprio S, Fennoy I, Freemark M, Kaufman FR, Lustig RH, Silverstein JH, Speiser PW, Styne DM, Montori VM, Endocrine S (2008) Prevention and treatment of pediatric obesity: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline based on expert opinion. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 93 (12):4576–4599. doi:10.1210/jc.2007-2458

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bacha F, Saad R, Gungor N, Arslanian SA (2006) Are obesity-related metabolic risk factors modulated by the degree of insulin resistance in adolescents? Diabetes care 29 (7):1599–1604. doi:10.2337/dc06-0581

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker JL, Michaelsen KF, Rasmussen KM, Sorensen TI (2004) Maternal prepregnant body mass index, duration of breastfeeding, and timing of complementary food introduction are associated with infant weight gain. The American journal of clinical nutrition 80 (6):1579–1588

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bamba V (2014) Update on screening, etiology, and treatment of dyslipidemia in children. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 99 (9):3093–3102. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-3860

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow SE, Expert C (2007) Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: summary report. Pediatrics 120 Suppl 4:S164–192. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2329C

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barton M (2010) Screening for obesity in children and adolescents: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Pediatrics 125 (2):361–367. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2037

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becque MD, Katch VL, Rocchini AP, Marks CR, Moorehead C (1988) Coronary risk incidence of obese adolescents: reduction by exercise plus diet intervention. Pediatrics 81 (5):605–612

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bereket A, Kiess W, Lustig RH, Muller HL, Goldstone AP, Weiss R, Yavuz Y, Hochberg Z (2012) Hypothalamic obesity in children. Obesity reviews: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 13 (9):780–798. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01004.x

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berge JM, Wall M, Hsueh TF, Fulkerson JA, Larson N, Neumark-Sztainer D (2015) The protective role of family meals for youth obesity: 10-year longitudinal associations. The Journal of pediatrics 166 (2):296–301. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.08.030

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boland CL, Harris JB, Harris KB (2015) Pharmacological management of obesity in pediatric patients. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 49 (2):220–232. doi:10.1177/1060028014557859

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Botvin GJ, Cantlon A, Carter BJ, Williams CL (1979) Reducing adolescent obesity through a school health program. The Journal of pediatrics 95 (6):1060–1063

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bray GA, Hollander P, Klein S, Kushner R, Levy B, Fitchet M, Perry BH (2003) A 6-month randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging trial of topiramate for weight loss in obesity. Obesity research 11 (6):722–733. doi:10.1038/oby.2003.102

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broderick RC, Fuchs HF, Harnsberger CR, Sandler BJ, Jacobsen GR (2014) Comparison of bariatric restrictive operations: laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy and laparoscopic gastric greater curvature plication. Surgical technology international 25:82–89

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chanoine JP, Hampl S, Jensen C, Boldrin M, Hauptman J (2005) Effect of orlistat on weight and body composition in obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Jama 293 (23):2873–2883. doi:10.1001/jama.293.23.2873

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clarson CL, Mahmud FH, Baker JE, Clark HE, McKay WM, Schauteet VD, Hill DJ (2009) Metformin in combination with structured lifestyle intervention improved body mass index in obese adolescents, but did not improve insulin resistance. Endocrine 36 (1):141–146. doi:10.1007/s12020-009-9196-9

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collins CE, Warren J, Neve M, McCoy P, Stokes BJ (2006) Measuring effectiveness of dietetic interventions in child obesity: a systematic review of randomized trials. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine 160 (9):906–922. doi:10.1001/archpedi.160.9.906

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins J, Mattar S, Qureshi F, Warman J, Ramanathan R, Schauer P, Eid G (2007) Initial outcomes of laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass in morbidly obese adolescents. Surgery for obesity and related diseases: official journal of the American Society for Bariatric Surgery 3 (2):147–152. doi:10.1016/j.soard.2006.12.002

    Google Scholar 

  • Coppini LZ, Bertevello PL, Gama-Rodrigues J, Waitzberg DL (2006) Changes in insulin sensitivity in morbidly obese patients with or without metabolic syndrome after gastric bypass. Obesity surgery 16 (11):1520–1525. doi:10.1381/096089206778870030

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels SR, Benuck I, Christakis DA, Dennison BA, Gidding SS, Gillman MW, Gottesman MM (2011) Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents: summary report. Pediatrics 128 Suppl 5:S213–256. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2107C

    Google Scholar 

  • Dansinger ML, Tatsioni A, Wong JB, Chung M, Balk EM (2007) Meta-analysis: the effect of dietary counseling for weight loss. Annals of internal medicine 147 (1):41–50

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson MH, Dugan LD, Burns JH, Sugimoto D, Story K, Drennan K (1996) A psyllium-enriched cereal for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia in children: a controlled, double-blind, crossover study. The American journal of clinical nutrition 63 (1):96–102

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delisle C, Sandin S, Forsum E, Henriksson H, Trolle-Lagerros Y, Larsson C, Maddison R, Ortega FB, Ruiz JR, Silfvernagel K, Timpka T, Lof M (2015) A web- and mobile phone-based intervention to prevent obesity in 4-year-olds (MINISTOP): a population-based randomized controlled trial. BMC public health 15:1444. doi:10.1186/s12889-015-1444-8

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz RG, Esparza-Romero J, Moya-Camarena SY, Robles-Sardin AE, Valencia ME (2010) Lifestyle intervention in primary care settings improves obesity parameters among Mexican youth. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 110 (2):285–290. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.10.042

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durmus B, Arends LR, Ay L, Hokken-Koelega AC, Raat H, Hofman A, Steegers EA, Jaddoe VW (2013) Parental anthropometrics, early growth and the risk of overweight in pre-school children: the Generation R Study. Pediatric obesity 8 (5):339–350. doi:10.1111/j.2047-6310.2012.00114.x

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein LH, McCurley J, Wing RR, Valoski A (1990) Five-year follow-up of family-based behavioral treatments for childhood obesity. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology 58 (5):661–664

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein LH, Valoski A, Wing RR, McCurley J (1994) Ten-year outcomes of behavioral family-based treatment for childhood obesity. Health psychology: official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 13 (5):373–383

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein LH, Wing RR, Koeske R, Valoski A (1984) Effects of diet plus exercise on weight change in parents and children. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology 52 (3):429–437

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson J, Forsen T, Osmond C, Barker D (2003) Obesity from cradle to grave. International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders: journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 27 (6):722–727. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802278

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Estabrooks PA, Shoup JA, Gattshall M, Dandamudi P, Shetterly S, Xu S (2009) Automated telephone counseling for parents of overweight children: a randomized controlled trial. American journal of preventive medicine 36 (1):35–42. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.024

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqi IS, Matarese G, Lord GM, Keogh JM, Lawrence E, Agwu C, Sanna V, Jebb SA, Perna F, Fontana S, Lechler RI, DePaoli AM, O’Rahilly S (2002) Beneficial effects of leptin on obesity, T cell hyporesponsiveness, and neuroendocrine/metabolic dysfunction of human congenital leptin deficiency. The Journal of clinical investigation 110 (8):1093–1103. doi:10.1172/jci15693

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fidler MC, Sanchez M, Raether B, Weissman NJ, Smith SR, Shanahan WR, Anderson CM, Group BCT (2011) A one-year randomized trial of lorcaserin for weight loss in obese and overweight adults: the BLOSSOM trial. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 96 (10):3067–3077. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-1256

    Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Ogden CL (2012) Prevalence of obesity and trends in the distribution of body mass index among US adults, 1999–2010. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association 307 (5):491–497. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.39

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming JW, McClendon KS, Riche DM (2013) New obesity agents: lorcaserin and phentermine/topiramate. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 47 (7–8):1007–1016. doi:10.1345/aph.1R779

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flodmark CE, Marcus C, Britton M (2006) Interventions to prevent obesity in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. International journal of obesity (2005) 30 (4):579–589. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803290

    Google Scholar 

  • Freemark M (2007) Pharmacotherapy of childhood obesity: an evidence-based, conceptual approach. Diabetes care 30 (2):395–402. doi:10.2337/dc06-1569

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fruebis J, Tsao TS, Javorschi S, Ebbets-Reed D, Erickson MR, Yen FT, Bihain BE, Lodish HF (2001) Proteolytic cleavage product of 30-kDa adipocyte complement-related protein increases fatty acid oxidation in muscle and causes weight loss in mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98 (4):2005–2010. doi:10.1073/pnas.041591798

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Camargo CA, Jr., Berkey CS, Frazier AL, Rockett HR, Field AE, Colditz GA (2001) Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association 285 (19):2461–2467

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gloy VL, Briel M, Bhatt DL, Kashyap SR, Schauer PR, Mingrone G, Bucher HC, Nordmann AJ (2013) Bariatric surgery versus non-surgical treatment for obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ (Clinical research ed) 347:f5934. doi:10.1136/bmj.f5934

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez-Suarez C, Worley A, Grimmer-Somers K, Dones V (2009) School-based interventions on childhood obesity: a meta-analysis. American journal of preventive medicine 37 (5):418–427. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2009.07.012

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harder T, Bergmann R, Kallischnigg G, Plagemann A (2005) Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight: a meta-analysis. American journal of epidemiology 162 (5):397–403. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi222

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hediger ML, Overpeck MD, Kuczmarski RJ, Ruan WJ (2001) Association between infant breastfeeding and overweight in young children. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association 285 (19):2453–2460

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heshka S, Anderson JW, Atkinson RL, Greenway FL, Hill JO, Phinney SD, Kolotkin RL, Miller-Kovach K, Pi-Sunyer FX (2003) Weight loss with self-help compared with a structured commercial program: a randomized trial. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association 289 (14):1792–1798. doi:10.1001/jama.289.14.1792

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heymsfield SB, Greenberg AS, Fujioka K, Dixon RM, Kushner R, Hunt T, Lubina JA, Patane J, Self B, Hunt P, McCamish M (1999) Recombinant leptin for weight loss in obese and lean adults: a randomized, controlled, dose-escalation trial. Jama 282 (16):1568–1575

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ho M, Garnett SP, Baur L, Burrows T, Stewart L, Neve M, Collins C (2012) Effectiveness of lifestyle interventions in child obesity: systematic review with meta-analysis. Pediatrics 130 (6):e1647–1671. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1176

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horgan S, Holterman MJ, Jacobsen GR, Browne AF, Berger RA, Moser F, Holterman AX (2005) Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding for the treatment of adolescent morbid obesity in the United States: a safe alternative to gastric bypass. Journal of pediatric surgery 40 (1):86–90; discussion 90–81. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2004.09.034

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes AR, Stewart L, Chapple J, McColl JH, Donaldson MD, Kelnar CJ, Zabihollah M, Ahmed F, Reilly JJ (2008) Randomized, controlled trial of a best-practice individualized behavioral program for treatment of childhood overweight: Scottish Childhood Overweight Treatment Trial (SCOTT). Pediatrics 121 (3):e539–546. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1786

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huh SY, Rifas-Shiman SL, Taveras EM, Oken E, Gillman MW (2011) Timing of solid food introduction and risk of obesity in preschool-aged children. Pediatrics 127 (3):e544–551. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0740

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ioannides-Demos LL, Piccenna L, McNeil JJ (2011) Pharmacotherapies for obesity: past, current, and future therapies. Journal of obesity 2011:179674. doi:10.1155/2011/179674

    Google Scholar 

  • Janicke DM, Sallinen BJ, Perri MG, Lutes LD, Huerta M, Silverstein JH, Brumback B (2008) Comparison of parent-only vs family-based interventions for overweight children in underserved rural settings: outcomes from project STORY. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine 162 (12):1119–1125. doi:10.1001/archpedi.162.12.1119

    Google Scholar 

  • Jiang JX, Xia XL, Greiner T, Lian GL, Rosenqvist U (2005) A two year family based behaviour treatment for obese children. Archives of disease in childhood 90 (12):1235–1238. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.071753

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston CA, Tyler C, Fullerton G, Poston WS, Haddock CK, McFarlin B, Reeves RS, Foreyt JP (2007) Results of an intensive school-based weight loss program with overweight Mexican American children. International journal of pediatric obesity: IJPO: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 2 (3):144–152. doi:10.1080/17477160701305864

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalarchian MA, Levine MD, Arslanian SA, Ewing LJ, Houck PR, Cheng Y, Ringham RM, Sheets CA, Marcus MD (2009) Family-based treatment of severe pediatric obesity: randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 124 (4):1060–1068. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-3727

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalavainen MP, Korppi MO, Nuutinen OM (2007) Clinical efficacy of group-based treatment for childhood obesity compared with routinely given individual counseling. International journal of obesity (2005) 31 (10):1500–1508. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803628

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamath CC, Vickers KS, Ehrlich A, McGovern L, Johnson J, Singhal V, Paulo R, Hettinger A, Erwin PJ, Montori VM (2008) Clinical review: behavioral interventions to prevent childhood obesity: a systematic review and metaanalyses of randomized trials. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 93 (12):4606–4615. doi:10.1210/jc.2006-2411

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly AS, Rudser KD, Nathan BM, Fox CK, Metzig AM, Coombes BJ, Fitch AK, Bomberg EM, Abuzzahab MJ (2013) The effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist therapy on body mass index in adolescents with severe obesity: a randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial. JAMA pediatrics 167 (4):355–360. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.1045

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly KP, Kirschenbaum DS (2011) Immersion treatment of childhood and adolescent obesity: the first review of a promising intervention. Obesity reviews: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 12 (1):37–49. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2009.00710.x

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall D, Vail A, Amin R, Barrett T, Dimitri P, Ivison F, Kibirige M, Mathew V, Matyka K, McGovern A, Stirling H, Tetlow L, Wales J, Wright N, Clayton P, Hall C (2013) Metformin in obese children and adolescents: the MOCA trial. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 98 (1):322–329. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-2710

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschenbaum DS, DeUgarte, D., Frankel, F., Germann, J.N., McKnight, T.L., Nieman, P., Sandler, R.H., Slusser, W. (2009) Seven steps to success: A handout for parents of overweight children and adolescents. Obesity Management 5 (1):29–32. doi:10.1089/obe.2009.0107

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirschenbaum DS, Gierut K (2013) Treatment of childhood and adolescent obesity: an integrative review of recent recommendations from five expert groups. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology 81 (2):347–360. doi:10.1037/a0030497

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kosova EC, Auinger P, Bremer AA (2013) The relationships between sugar-sweetened beverage intake and cardiometabolic markers in young children. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 113 (2):219–227. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2012.10.020

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhle S, Tong OS, Woolcott CG (2015) Association between caesarean section and childhood obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity reviews: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. doi:10.1111/obr.12267

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawson ML, Kirk S, Mitchell T, Chen MK, Loux TJ, Daniels SR, Harmon CM, Clements RH, Garcia VF, Inge TH (2006) One-year outcomes of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass for morbidly obese adolescents: a multicenter study from the Pediatric Bariatric Study Group. Journal of pediatric surgery 41 (1):137–143; discussion 137–143. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2005.10.017

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levitsky LL, Misra M, Boepple PA, Hoppin AG (2009) Adolescent obesity and bariatric surgery. Current opinion in endocrinology, diabetes, and obesity 16 (1):37–44. doi:10.1097/MED.0b013e32832101ff

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu AG, Smith SR, Fujioka K, Greenway FL (2013) The effect of leptin, caffeine/ephedrine, and their combination upon visceral fat mass and weight loss. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md) 21 (10):1991–1996. doi:10.1002/oby.20416

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Love-Osborne K, Sheeder J, Zeitler P (2008) Addition of metformin to a lifestyle modification program in adolescents with insulin resistance. The Journal of pediatrics 152 (6):817–822. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.01.018

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lustig RH, Greenway F, Velasquez-Mieyer P, Heimburger D, Schumacher D, Smith D, Smith W, Soler N, Warsi G, Berg W, Maloney J, Benedetto J, Zhu W, Hohneker J (2006a) A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding trial of a long-acting formulation of octreotide in promoting weight loss in obese adults with insulin hypersecretion. International journal of obesity 30 (2):331–341. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803074

    Google Scholar 

  • Lustig RH, Hinds PS, Ringwald-Smith K, Christensen RK, Kaste SC, Schreiber RE, Rai SN, Lensing SY, Wu S, Xiong X (2003) Octreotide therapy of pediatric hypothalamic obesity: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 88 (6):2586–2592. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-030003

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lustig RH, Mietus-Snyder ML, Bacchetti P, Lazar AA, Velasquez-Mieyer PA, Christensen ML (2006b) Insulin dynamics predict body mass index and z-score response to insulin suppression or sensitization pharmacotherapy in obese children. The Journal of pediatrics 148 (1):23–29. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2005.08.075

    Google Scholar 

  • Maahs D, de Serna DG, Kolotkin RL, Ralston S, Sandate J, Qualls C, Schade DS (2006) Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of orlistat for weight loss in adolescents. Endocrine practice: official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists 12 (1):18–28. doi:10.4158/EP.12.1.18

    Google Scholar 

  • Maggard MA, Shugarman LR, Suttorp M, Maglione M, Sugerman HJ, Livingston EH, Nguyen NT, Li Z, Mojica WA, Hilton L, Rhodes S, Morton SC, Shekelle PG (2005) Meta-analysis: surgical treatment of obesity. Annals of internal medicine 142 (7):547–559

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mauras N, DelGiorno C, Hossain J, Bird K, Killen K, Merinbaum D, Weltman A, Damaso L, Balagopal P (2012) Metformin use in children with obesity and normal glucose tolerance--effects on cardiovascular markers and intrahepatic fat. Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism: JPEM 25 (1–2):33–40. doi:10.1515/jpem-2011-0450

    PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy M (2013) Cut children’s screen time to less than two hours a day, US pediatricians say. BMJ (Clinical research ed) 347:f6573. doi:10.1136/bmj.f6573

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonagh MS, Selph S, Ozpinar A, Foley C (2014) Systematic review of the benefits and risks of metformin in treating obesity in children aged 18 years and younger. JAMA pediatrics 168 (2):178–184. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.4200

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Booth SL, Uwaifo GI, Yanovski JA (2002a) Effects of orlistat on fat-soluble vitamins in obese adolescents. Pharmacotherapy 22 (7):814–822

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Uwaifo GI, Sebring NG, Fallon EM, Frazer TE, Van Hubbard S, Yanovski JA (2004) Efficacy of orlistat as an adjunct to behavioral treatment in overweight African American and Caucasian adolescents with obesity-related co-morbid conditions. Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism: JPEM 17 (3):307–319

    PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Uwaifo GI, Sebring NG, Fallon EM, Hubbard VS, Yanovski JA (2002b) Three-month tolerability of orlistat in adolescents with obesity-related comorbid conditions. Obesity research 10 (7):642–650. doi:10.1038/oby.2002.87

    Google Scholar 

  • McGovern L, Johnson JN, Paulo R, Hettinger A, Singhal V, Kamath C, Erwin PJ, Montori VM (2008) Clinical review: treatment of pediatric obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 93 (12):4600–4605. doi:10.1210/jc.2006-2409

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Metformin in obesity (2014). Archives of disease in childhood 99 (3):231. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2014-305957

    Google Scholar 

  • Michalsky M, Reichard K, Inge T, Pratt J, Lenders C (2012) ASMBS pediatric committee best practice guidelines. Surgery for obesity and related diseases: official journal of the American Society for Bariatric Surgery 8 (1):1–7. doi:10.1016/j.soard.2011.09.009

    Google Scholar 

  • Michalsky MP, Inge TH, Teich S, Eneli I, Miller R, Brandt ML, Helmrath M, Harmon CM, Zeller MH, Jenkins TM, Courcoulas A, Buncher RC (2014) Adolescent bariatric surgery program characteristics: the Teen Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery (Teen-LABS) study experience. Seminars in pediatric surgery 23 (1):5–10. doi:10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2013.10.020

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mistry SK, Puthussery S (2015) Risk factors of overweight and obesity in childhood and adolescence in South Asian countries: a systematic review of the evidence. Public health 129 (3):200–209. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2014.12.004

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison JA, Cottingham EM, Barton BA (2002) Metformin for weight loss in pediatric patients taking psychotropic drugs. The American journal of psychiatry 159 (4):655–657

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mun EC, Blackburn GL, Matthews JB (2001) Current status of medical and surgical therapy for obesity. Gastroenterology 120 (3):669–681

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadler EP, Youn HA, Ren CJ, Fielding GA (2008) An update on 73 US obese pediatric patients treated with laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding: comorbidity resolution and compliance data. Journal of pediatric surgery 43 (1):141–146. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2007.09.035

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Natale RA, Lopez-Mitnik G, Uhlhorn SB, Asfour L, Messiah SE (2014) Effect of a child care center-based obesity prevention program on body mass index and nutrition practices among preschool-aged children. Health promotion practice 15 (5):695–705. doi:10.1177/1524839914523429

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson MC, Gordon-Larsen P, Adair LS (2005) Are adolescents who were breast-fed less likely to be overweight? Analyses of sibling pairs to reduce confounding. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass) 16 (2):247–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemet D, Barkan S, Epstein Y, Friedland O, Kowen G, Eliakim A (2005) Short- and long-term beneficial effects of a combined dietary-behavioral-physical activity intervention for the treatment of childhood obesity. Pediatrics 115 (4):e443–449. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2172

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nemet D, Barzilay-Teeni N, Eliakim A (2008) Treatment of childhood obesity in obese families. Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism: JPEM 21 (5):461–467

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM (2014) Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011–2012. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association 311 (8):806–814. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.732

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olbers T, Gronowitz E, Werling M, Marlid S, Flodmark CE, Peltonen M, Gothberg G, Karlsson J, Ekbom K, Sjostrom LV, Dahlgren J, Lonroth H, Friberg P, Marcus C (2012) Two-year outcome of laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass in adolescents with severe obesity: results from a Swedish Nationwide Study (AMOS). International journal of obesity 36 (11):1388–1395. doi:10.1038/ijo.2012.160

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oude Luttikhuis H, Baur L, Jansen H, Shrewsbury VA, O’Malley C, Stolk RP, Summerbell CD (2009) Interventions for treating obesity in children. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (1):Cd001872. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001872.pub2

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacifico L, Anania C, Martino F, Poggiogalle E, Chiarelli F, Arca M, Chiesa C (2011) Management of metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. Nutrition, metabolism, and cardiovascular diseases: NMCD 21 (6):455–466. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2011.01.011

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park TG, Hong HR, Lee J, Kang HS (2007) Lifestyle plus exercise intervention improves metabolic syndrome markers without change in adiponectin in obese girls. Annals of nutrition & metabolism 51 (3):197–203. doi:10.1159/000104137

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pearce J, Taylor MA, Langley-Evans SC (2013) Timing of the introduction of complementary feeding and risk of childhood obesity: a systematic review. International journal of obesity (2005) 37 (10):1295–1306. doi:10.1038/ijo.2013.99

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedroso FE, Gander J, Oh PS, Zitsman JL (2015) Laparoscopic vertical sleeve gastrectomy significantly improves short term weight loss as compared to laparoscopic adjustable gastric band placement in morbidly obese adolescent patients. Journal of pediatric surgery 50 (1):115–122. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2014.10.014

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Position of the American Dietetic Association: individual-, family-, school-, and community-based interventions for pediatric overweight (2006). Journal of the American Dietetic Association 106 (6):925–945

    Google Scholar 

  • Pourshahidi LK, Kerr MA, McCaffrey TA, Livingstone MB (2014) Influencing and modifying children’s energy intake: the role of portion size and energy density. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 73 (3):397–406. doi:10.1017/s0029665114000615

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Power C, Jefferis BJ (2002) Fetal environment and subsequent obesity: a study of maternal smoking. International journal of epidemiology 31 (2):413–419

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt JS, Lenders CM, Dionne EA, Hoppin AG, Hsu GL, Inge TH, Lawlor DF, Marino MF, Meyers AF, Rosenblum JL, Sanchez VM (2009) Best practice updates for pediatric/adolescent weight loss surgery. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md) 17 (5):901–910. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.577

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinehr T, Schaefer A, Winkel K, Finne E, Toschke AM, Kolip P (2010) An effective lifestyle intervention in overweight children: findings from a randomized controlled trial on “Obeldicks light”. Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) 29 (3):331–336. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2009.12.010

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rezvanian H, Hashemipour M, Kelishadi R, Tavakoli N, Poursafa P (2010) A randomized, triple masked, placebo-controlled clinical trial for controlling childhood obesity. World journal of pediatrics: WJP 6 (4):317–322. doi:10.1007/s12519-010-0232-x

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rocchini AP, Katch V, Anderson J, Hinderliter J, Becque D, Martin M, Marks C (1988) Blood pressure in obese adolescents: effect of weight loss. Pediatrics 82 (1):16–23

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rooney BL, Gritt LR, Havens SJ, Mathiason MA, Clough EA (2005) Growing healthy families: family use of pedometers to increase physical activity and slow the rate of obesity. WMJ: official publication of the State Medical Society of Wisconsin 104 (5):54–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Rouhani MH, Kelishadi R, Hashemipour M, Esmaillzadeh A, Azadbakht L (2014) Glycemic index, glycemic load and childhood obesity: A systematic review. Advanced biomedical research 3:47. doi:10.4103/2277-9175.125757

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sabet Sarvestani R, Jamalfard MH, Kargar M, Kaveh MH, Tabatabaee HR (2009) Effect of dietary behaviour modification on anthropometric indices and eating behaviour in obese adolescent girls. Journal of advanced nursing 65 (8):1670–1675. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2009.05029.x

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saelens BE, Sallis JF, Wilfley DE, Patrick K, Cella JA, Buchta R (2002) Behavioral weight control for overweight adolescents initiated in primary care. Obesity research 10 (1):22–32. doi:10.1038/oby.2002.4

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salsberry PJ, Reagan PB (2005) Dynamics of early childhood overweight. Pediatrics 116 (6):1329–1338. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2583

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savoye M, Shaw M, Dziura J, Tamborlane WV, Rose P, Guandalini C, Goldberg-Gell R, Burgert TS, Cali AM, Weiss R, Caprio S (2007) Effects of a weight management program on body composition and metabolic parameters in overweight children: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association 297 (24):2697–2704. doi:10.1001/jama.297.24.2697

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silberhumer GR, Miller K, Kriwanek S, Widhalm K, Pump A, Prager G (2006) Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding in adolescents: the Austrian experience. Obesity surgery 16 (8):1062–1067. doi:10.1381/096089206778026262

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spear BA, Barlow SE, Ervin C, Ludwig DS, Saelens BE, Schetzina KE, Taveras EM (2007) Recommendations for treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics 120 Suppl 4:S254–288. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2329F

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Srinivasan S, Ambler GR, Baur LA, Garnett SP, Tepsa M, Yap F, Ward GM, Cowell CT (2006) Randomized, controlled trial of metformin for obesity and insulin resistance in children and adolescents: improvement in body composition and fasting insulin. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 91 (6):2074–2080. doi:10.1210/jc.2006-0241

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Standards of medical care in diabetes – 2012 (2012). Diabetes care 35 Suppl 1:S11–63. doi:10.2337/dc12-s011

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong WB, Malina RM, Blimkie CJ, Daniels SR, Dishman RK, Gutin B, Hergenroeder AC, Must A, Nixon PA, Pivarnik JM, Rowland T, Trost S, Trudeau F (2005) Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. The Journal of pediatrics 146 (6):732–737. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2005.01.055

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Summerbell CD, Waters E, Edmunds LD, Kelly S, Brown T, Campbell KJ (2005) Interventions for preventing obesity in children. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (3):Cd001871. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001871.pub2

    Google Scholar 

  • Tauber MT, Harris AG, Rochiccioli P (1994) Clinical use of the long acting somatostatin analogue octreotide in pediatrics. European journal of pediatrics 153 (5):304–310

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Bloemendaal L, RG IJ, Ten Kulve JS, Barkhof F, Konrad RJ, Drent ML, Veltman DJ, Diamant M (2014) GLP-1 receptor activation modulates appetite- and reward-related brain areas in humans. Diabetes 63 (12):4186–4196. doi:10.2337/db14-0849

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Baan-Slootweg O, Benninga MA, Beelen A, van der Palen J, Tamminga-Smeulders C, Tijssen JG, van Aalderen WM (2014) Inpatient treatment of children and adolescents with severe obesity in the Netherlands: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA pediatrics 168 (9):807–814. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.521

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viner RM, Hsia Y, Tomsic T, Wong IC (2010) Efficacy and safety of anti-obesity drugs in children and adolescents: systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity reviews: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 11 (8):593–602. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2009.00651.x

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • von Kries R, Toschke AM, Koletzko B, Slikker W, Jr. (2002) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and childhood obesity. American journal of epidemiology 156 (10):954–961

    Google Scholar 

  • Waters E, de Silva-Sanigorski A, Hall BJ, Brown T, Campbell KJ, Gao Y, Armstrong R, Prosser L, Summerbell CD (2011) Interventions for preventing obesity in children. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (12):Cd001871. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001871.pub3

    Google Scholar 

  • Weigel C, Kokocinski K, Lederer P, Dotsch J, Rascher W, Knerr I (2008) Childhood obesity: concept, feasibility, and interim results of a local group-based, long-term treatment program. Journal of nutrition education and behavior 40 (6):369–373. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2007.07.009

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss EC, Galuska DA, Kettel Khan L, Gillespie C, Serdula MK (2007) Weight regain in U.S. adults who experienced substantial weight loss, 1999–2002. American journal of preventive medicine 33 (1):34–40. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.02.040

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker RC (2004) Predicting preschooler obesity at birth: the role of maternal obesity in early pregnancy. Pediatrics 114 (1):e29–36

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker RC, Wright JA, Pepe MS, Seidel KD, Dietz WH (1997) Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. The New England journal of medicine 337 (13):869–873. doi:10.1056/NEJM199709253371301

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiegand S, l’Allemand D, Hubel H, Krude H, Burmann M, Martus P, Gruters A, Holl RW (2010) Metformin and placebo therapy both improve weight management and fasting insulin in obese insulin-resistant adolescents: a prospective, placebo-controlled, randomized study. European journal of endocrinology / European Federation of Endocrine Societies 163 (4):585–592. doi:10.1530/EJE-10-0570

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilding J, Van Gaal L, Rissanen A, Vercruysse F, Fitchet M (2004) A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study of the long-term efficacy and safety of topiramate in the treatment of obese subjects. International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders: journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 28 (11):1399–1410. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802783

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilfley DE, Tibbs TL, Van Buren DJ, Reach KP, Walker MS, Epstein LH (2007) Lifestyle interventions in the treatment of childhood overweight: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Health psychology: official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 26 (5):521–532. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.5.521

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson DM, Abrams SH, Aye T, Lee PD, Lenders C, Lustig RH, Osganian SV, Feldman HA, Glaser Pediatric Research Network Obesity Study G (2010) Metformin extended release treatment of adolescent obesity: a 48-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with 48-week follow-up. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine 164 (2):116–123. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.264

    Google Scholar 

  • Wulkan ML, Walsh SM (2014) The multi-disciplinary approach to adolescent bariatric surgery. Seminars in pediatric surgery 23 (1):2–4. doi:10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2013.10.012

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yanovski JA, Krakoff J, Salaita CG, McDuffie JR, Kozlosky M, Sebring NG, Reynolds JC, Brady SM, Calis KA (2011) Effects of metformin on body weight and body composition in obese insulin-resistant children: a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes 60 (2):477–485. doi:10.2337/db10-1185

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yitzhak A, Mizrahi S, Avinoach E (2006) Laparoscopic gastric banding in adolescents. Obesity surgery 16 (10):1318–1322. doi:10.1381/096089206778663823

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young KM, Northern JJ, Lister KM, Drummond JA, O’Brien WH (2007) A meta-analysis of family-behavioral weight-loss treatments for children. Clinical psychology review 27 (2):240–249. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.08.003

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng JS, Liu H, Zhao YM, Li J, Chen Y, Zhu S, Chen H, Huang T, Li D (2015) Complementary feeding and childhood adiposity in preschool-aged children in a large Chinese cohort. The Journal of pediatrics 166 (2):326–331.e322. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.11.010

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmet P, Alberti G, Kaufman F, Tajima N, Silink M, Arslanian S, Wong G, Bennett P, Shaw J, Caprio S (2007) The metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. Lancet 369 (9579):2059–2061. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(07)60958-1

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

    Authors and Affiliations

    1. Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA

      Sani M. Roy, Stacy Rustico & Bassil Kublaoui

    Authors
    1. Sani M. Roy
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    2. Stacy Rustico
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    3. Bassil Kublaoui
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    Corresponding author

    Correspondence to Bassil Kublaoui .

    Editor information

    Editors and Affiliations

    1. Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylania, Pennsylvania, USA

      Rexford S. Ahima

    Rights and permissions

    Reprints and permissions

    Copyright information

    © 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland (outside the USA)

    About this entry

    Cite this entry

    Roy, S.M., Rustico, S., Kublaoui, B. (2015). Prevention and Treatment of Childhood Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome. In: Ahima, R. (eds) Metabolic Syndrome. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12125-3_46-1

    Download citation

    • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12125-3_46-1

    • Received:

    • Accepted:

    • Published:

    • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

    • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-12125-3

    • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

    Publish with us

    Policies and ethics

    Search

    Navigation