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Instruments and Sensors

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Physics of Lakes

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Abstract

An overview of traditional field measurement tools are presented in this chapter. Instruments and sensors are described, commonly used in field practice to measure water currents, water temperature, electrical conductivity, water level, depth, limnologically relevant optical properties and characteristics of turbulence. Among the current meters, various principles of operation and different primary converters of mechanical, acoustic, electromagnetic instruments are discussed. Physical principles of measurements of water temperature and electrical conductivity are considered, along with the main constructive features of famous historical (Galileo’s thermometer, reversing thermometer) and popular modern (CTDs) instruments. Water level and water depth measurements go back to the nineteenth century, and this chapter presents the tools for that—from point-pole and sounding lead to standard limnigraph and echo-sounder. Tools to quantify optical properties of lake water range from simple but reliable scales to define water colour and water transparency—the hue scale, the Forel-Uhl scale, the Secchi disk—to complicated modern photometers and lasers. Finally, concept of turbulence is introduced in most a simple way, in order to explain the reader how its features are deduced from time series of water velocity or temperature, which are measured by turbulimeters; examples of such instruments are presented.

...The general principle for oceanographic instruments has been to keep them simple and reliable, a principle underlined by the long-successful use of the NANSEN bottle and reversing thermometer... D. James Baker Evolution of physical oceanography 1981.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    In oceanography and limnology the common terminology to characterize the water motion is as follows: ‘current’ is used to denote the velocity vector of a water particle. In connection with observations ‘current’ often only characterizes the projection of the water velocity onto the horizontal plane. Generally, the meaning can easily be inferred from the context. ‘Speed’ is used to characterize the modulus of the velocity vector, again either in three dimensions or in the horizontal projection and ‘direction’ almost exclusively means the direction of the projection of the current vector in the horizontal plane.

  2. 2.

    This is a thin layer immediately above the bottom.

  3. 3.

    For instance, for small currents, it often happens with such instruments that the speed is smaller than the corresponding threshold value of the instrument and thus cannot be recorded—whilst the direction is still reliably measured.

  4. 4.

    A primary converter is a physical body (a liquid, crystal, membrane etc.) or simple construction (screw, capacitive cell, etc.) whose characteristics vary significantly in accordance with some external parameter to be measured. The most valuable converters are those which provide information via frequency modulated signals, since they can be immediately transmitted and recorded, without additional transformation.

  5. 5.

    Use of trade names in this book is for identification purposes only and does not constitute endorsement by the authors. This is said here once and for all and will not any further be repeated.

  6. 6.

    The every-day manifestation of the Doppler shift is the sound of a blowing horn from a police car. When a car is approaching the tone arriving at a receiver is higher—i.e., its frequency larger—than when the car is moving away from the receiver. Christian Doppler (1803–53) was an Austrian physicist who described this frequency shift first in 1842.

  7. 7.

    The acronym ADCP stands for ‘Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler’. Sometimes, the acronym ADP (‘Acoustic Doppler Profiler’) is used for such instruments.

  8. 8.

    Electromotive force; or voltage.

  9. 9.

    Defant (1961) [12] gives a description (in German) of reversing thermometers and refers to Schumacher (1923) [62] for detailed use.

  10. 10.

    The accuracy that can be achieved depends also on the response time of the instrument at which a reliable temperature value is reached.

  11. 11.

    10 ppt corresponds to 10 g salt per 1 kg of solution, i.e. 10 g of salt + 990 g of pure water.

  12. 12.

    ‘The seiches are for the first time mentioned in 1730 by Fatio de Duillier, a structural engineer in \({\text {Geneva}}\ldots \) This sort of fourth and back flow is called in Geneva “seiche”.’

  13. 13.

    If such pressure gages are used as substitutes for direct surface elevation gages, they should not be placed in too deep waters, because the frequency spectra of pressure and surface elevations are not the same.

  14. 14.

    These are orders of magnitude; a value \(Re={2000}\) or even larger can well also characterize the transition from laminar to turbulent flow.

  15. 15.

    The turbulent kinetic energy \( \kappa \left[ {\text {m}}^2\,{\text {s}}^{-2}\right] \) and the turbulent dissipation rate\(\varepsilon \ \bigl [{\text {m}}^2\,{\text {s}}^{-3} \bigr ]\) characterize the intensity of the turbulence. Their smallest values characterize the transition of the smallest eddies to dissipation. In limnology and oceanography these smallest values are \(\kappa _\mathrm{min} = 10^{-6} \left[ {\text {m}}^2\,{\text {s}}^{-2}\right] , \varepsilon _\mathrm{min} = 10^{-6}\left[ {\text {m}}^2\,{\text {s}}^{-3}\right] \). They allow construction of the Kolmogorov time \(T_K\) and length \(L_K\)

    $$\begin{aligned} T_K = \frac{\kappa _\mathrm{min}}{\varepsilon _\mathrm{min}} = 1\, sec, \qquad L_K = \sqrt{\frac{\kappa ^2_\mathrm{min}}{\varepsilon ^3_\mathrm{min}}} = 10^{-3} \,\mathrm{m} = 1\, \mathrm{mm}. \end{aligned}$$

    Thus, on time scales of seconds and length scales of millimeters the flows in lakes and the ocean are laminar.

  16. 16.

    A somewhat picturesque description of turbulence is that large gyres generate through their interaction smaller gyres cascading down to the smallest eddies which have the dimension of the Kolmogorov length below which they dissipate into heat. Richardson expressed this poetically as stated in the epigraph to this subsection.

  17. 17.

    This is \(\partial u/\partial z\), where \(u\) is the horizontal velocity and \(z\) the downward coordinate.

Abbreviations

Roman :

Symbols

\({\varvec{B}}\) :

Magnetic field of the Earth

\(f\) :

Symbol for a physical variable

\(\bar{f}\) :

Mean value of \(f\)

\(f^{\prime }\) :

Fluctuation/pulsation of \(f\)

\(F_T\) :

Frequency of eigenoscillation

\(g\) :

Gravity constant

\(H\) :

Depth, water depth

\(H_{sw}(z)\) :

Radiation

\(L\) :

Characteristic length

\(L_K\) :

Kolmogorov length (1 mm)

\(l\) :

Distance between electrodes

\(p\) :

Pressure

\(Re\) :

Reynolds number

\(R_t, (R_0)\) :

Electric resistances of the interior (exterior) of a region

\(T\) :

Temperature

\(T_K\) :

Kolmogorov time (1 s)

\(U\) :

Velocity modulus

\({\varvec{V}}\) :

Velocity vector

\(z_s\) :

Secchi disk depth

Greek :

Symbols

\(\alpha , \beta , \gamma \) :

Coefficients in parameterizations

\(\beta \) :

Isothermal compressibility

\(\varDelta \rho _s\) :

Density anomaly due to dissolved substances

\(\varepsilon \) :

Electric/magnetic potential, light extinction/absorption coefficient, specific turbulent dissipation rate

\(\kappa \) :

Specific turbulent kinetic energy

\(\nu \) :

Kinematic viscosity

\(\rho \) :

Density

\(\rho _{*} = \rho _w\) :

\(=1,000\) kg m\(^{-3}\)

\(\rho _T\) :

Density of pure water

\(\sigma _t = \rho - \rho _{*}\) :

Density anomaly

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. c/o Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology at ETH, ETH Hönggerberg, HIT F43, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland

    Kolumban Hutter

  2. Chair of Fluid Dynamics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, TU Darmstadt, Otto-Berndt-Strasse 2, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany

    Yongqi Wang

  3. P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, prospect Mira 1, Kaliningrad, 236022, Russia

    Irina P. Chubarenko

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Hutter, K., Wang, Y., Chubarenko, I.P. (2014). Instruments and Sensors. In: Physics of Lakes. Advances in Geophysical and Environmental Mechanics and Mathematics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00473-0_28

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