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Change and Continuity in Sound Analysis: A Review of Concepts in Regard to Musical Acoustics, Music Perception, and Transcription

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Sound - Perception - Performance

Part of the book series: Current Research in Systematic Musicology ((CRSM,volume 1))

Abstract

Over the past decades, a broad range of software and hardware tools has become available suited to perform sound analysis both in the time domain and in the frequency. This chapter reviews a number of former and current concepts in regard to frequency measurement, melographic techniques and transcription, pitch perception and consonance as well as analysis of timbral parameters.

This article is dedicated to the memory of Walter Graf (1903–1982), one of the pioneers of sound research in Systematic and Comparative Musicology.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    It is reported (cf. Beyer 1999, 140f., Figures 6,7,8,9,10,11) that Karl Rudolph Koenig (who invented a range of instruments for acoustics) had improved the Phonautograph by adding a conical horn to collect the sound (as was similarly done later by Edison with the Phonograph) as well as the rotating cylinder on which the sound was actually recorded as an oscillogram. As to the early history of sound analysis, see also Graf (1980, 211ff).

  2. 2.

    Some of the early research is reported (with details in regard to methods of measurement and the technology then available) in Meissner (1907), Krueger (1907), Hermann (1893), Herrmann (1908). See also Panconcelli-Calzia (1941/1994).

  3. 3.

    This is a practical definition applicable to empirical observation and measurement. In signal processing, the notion ‘instantaneous frequency’ has a more technical definition based on calculating the instantaneous (or local) phase φ(t) (a real-valued function) for a (complex-valued) function x(t) representing the signal; the instantaneous angular frequency can be determined as the derivative of the phase, that is ω(t) = φ′(t); see Cohen (1995, 39ff).

  4. 4.

    Abu Zeluf, sung by Dunya Yunis, recorded by Poul Rovsing Olsen on 4th of February, Beirut 1972. Published on the LP Music in the World of Islam, Vol. I: The Human Voice, Tangent Records TGS 131 (London 1976), B2. As to the history of the recording and its later (ab)use, see Feld and Kirgegaard (2010).

  5. 5.

    The measurements for pitch curves shown in Figs. 2 and 3 were performed with the Praat software (Boersma and Weenink 2011). A special autocorrelation method (Boersma 1993) was chosen for calculation of pitch with a time resolution of 1 ms.

  6. 6.

    The meaning of timbre in the French language comprises sound, sound colour, and also bike bell (timbre d’une bicyclette) as well as brand, mark and (postal) stamp.

  7. 7.

    Translations are from the edition of Helmholtz’ collected lectures and speeches (Helmholtz 1896).

  8. 8.

    For an in-depth discussion of the tonal and sound attributes that were used by Stumpf, Hornbostel, Wellek, etc., see Albersheim (1939) and Schneider (1997b), Kap. III.1, 404–430.

  9. 9.

    The term ‘tone colour’ (Tonfarbe, Stumpf 1890, 1926) applies to pure tones, while ‘sound colour’ (Klangfarbe) is reserved to complex tones. More empirical evidence for the fact that, by varying two physical properties (frequency, amplitude) of pure tones, one can vary more than two sensational attributes (namely, pitch, loudness, and volume), was later given by Stevens (1934).

  10. 10.

    Where, approximately, I = peff veff = p 2/Z that can be transferred to SPL [dB].

  11. 11.

    Helmholtz (1870, 179): …dass die Stärke ihrer Obertöne nicht von der Ordnungszahl derselben, sondern von deren absoluter Tonhöhe abhängt.

  12. 12.

    Meissner was a professor in Göttingen when conducting his research on vowels and sounds from musical instruments in the 1880s and 1890s. Hermann was a professor in the University of Königsberg and internationally acknowledged as author/editor of textbooks on physiology. Some of the historical background to this era of research is briefly summed up in Graf (1980, 211ff).

  13. 13.

    A copy of this Habilitationssschrift is kept in the library of the Staatliche Institut für Musikforschung of Berlin. Another copy apparently is in the Institute of Musicology at Cologne.

  14. 14.

    As to Schumann’s biography, see his Wikipedia entry and Nagel (2007, 232ff). Stumpf became an emeritus in 1921 but continued to teach (including supervision of candidates) until late in the 1920s. According to Reinecke (2003, 185) who knew Schumann personally, he was Schüler und langjähriger Assistent Carl Stumpfs. However, Stumpf (1926, 7), in the Einleitung to his Sprachlaute, mentions eleven co-workers and colleagues who had helped him in experiments on the analysis of vowels (notably Dr. von Allesch), but not Schumann who (cf. Nagel 2007, 232ff.) apparently was a paid assistant in the Institute of Physics where he worked with Arthur Wehnelt, well known for his discoveries in electronics.

  15. 15.

    The triangular double reed used for measurements is 10.5 mm wide at the opening. It is 20 mm long and is mounted on a cylindrical tube of 25 mm length and 4 mm diameter. Thereby, the total length of reed and tube is 45 mm. Recordings were made with the reed and tube put close in front to a condenser microphone (Neumann U 67, AKG C 414 B-TL II) set to cardioid and fed into a preamp and A/D converter system (Telefunken V 76, Panasonic DAT SV 3800 at 16 bit/48 kHz and RME Fireface 800 at 32 bit float/96 kHz on hard disc.

  16. 16.

    The analysis is based on STFT with an approximation of spectral peaks in the envelope per analysis frame by the Burg method (cf. Marple 1987). The three ‘formants’ in fact represent tracks of spectral envelope peaks plotted against time.

  17. 17.

    The fluctuation is evident from so-called speckles (black dots) which indicate spectral energy peaks per analysis frame.

  18. 18.

    In reed-driven instruments such as the clarinet, a range of nonlinearities is observed with respect to the vibration of the (single or double) reed, the flow of air through the slit as well as in other parameters. For details in regard to modeling and calculation, see Dalmont et al. (2000), Kergomard et al. (2000).

  19. 19.

    The difference is not identical with, yet bears some parallels to, that between bottom-up and top-down analysis as outlined in Bregman’s Auditory Scene Analysis (Bregman 1990).

  20. 20.

    Not to be confused with the subharmonic matching process that has been proposed by Terhardt (1998) for ‘pitch’ (f0) estimation of complex sounds; of course, there are some correspondences in both concepts.

  21. 21.

    For the calculation of analogue low pass and band pass filter parameters, see Fant (1952), Küpfmüller (1968).

  22. 22.

    The sonagram was produced, in spring 1978, in the lab of the Kommission für Schallforschung of the Austrian Academy of Sciences at Vienna where the present author was working for a period on invitation of Walter Graf, then head of the Kommission für Schallforschung and its lab. Fant (1952) developed a heterodyne filter that, different from the constant bandwidth filter employed in the sonagraph, offers continuously variable bandwidth along with the continuously variable center frequency.

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  1. Institut für Musikwissenschaft, Universität Hamburg, Neue Rabenstr. 13, D-20354, Hamburg, Germany

    Albrecht Schneider

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    Rolf Bader

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Schneider, A. (2013). Change and Continuity in Sound Analysis: A Review of Concepts in Regard to Musical Acoustics, Music Perception, and Transcription. In: Bader, R. (eds) Sound - Perception - Performance. Current Research in Systematic Musicology, vol 1. Springer, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00107-4_3

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