Abstract
Even though many lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) adults are parents, LGBTQ parenthood remains a controversial topic. Several questions have been posed. For instance, to what extent do LGBTQ adults make capable parents? Do children who have LGBTQ parents grow up in healthy ways? What factors contribute to positive family functioning in families with LGBTQ parents? Social science research has addressed these questions, and the findings suggest both that LGBTQ adults are successful in their roles as parents and that their children develop in positive ways. Overall, the findings from the research are presented here; they suggest that parental sexual orientation and gender identity do not in themselves influence success in parenting or child development. Indeed, as research findings demonstrate, sexual and gender minority parents and their children have shown remarkable resilience, even in the face of many challenges. Issues that are unique to LGBTQ parents, as well as implications of research findings for law and policy around the world, are also discussed.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Baccara, M., Collard-Wexler, A., Felli, L., & Yariv, L. (2014). Child-adoption matching: Preferences for gender and race. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 6(3), 133–158. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.6.3.133
Baiocco, R., & Laghi, F. (2013). Sexual orientation and the desires and intentions to become parents. Journal of Family Studies, 19, 90–98.
Ball, C. A. (2012). The right to be parents: LGBT families and the transformation of parenthood. New York University Press.
Baumrind, D. (1995). Commentary on sexual orientation: Research and policy implications. Developmental Psychology, 31, 130–136.
Bergman, K., Rubio, R. J., Green, R.-J., & Padron, E. (2010). Gay men who became fathers via surrogacy: The transition to parenthood. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6, 111–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504281003704942
Biblarz, T. J., & Stacey, J. (2010). How does the gender of parents matter? Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00678.x
Bos, H., & Gartrell, N. (2020). Lesbian mother families formed through donor insemination. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBTQ-Parent Families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (2nd ed.). Springer.
Bos, H., van Balen, F., & van den Boom, D. (2007). Child adjustment and parenting in planned lesbian-parent families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 38–48. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.1.38
Brainer, A. (2019). Queer kinship and family change in Taiwan. Rutgers University Press.
Brainer, A. (2021). Lesbian and gay parents, heterosexual kinship, and queer dreams: Making families in twenty-first century Taiwan. Positions: Asia Critique, 29, 633–656. https://doi.org/10.1215/10679847-8978386
Brainer, A., Moore, M., & Banerjee, P. (2020). Race and ethnicity in the lives of LGBTQ parents and their children: Perspectives from and beyond North America. In A. Goldberg & K. Allen (Eds.), LGBTQ-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (2nd ed.). Springer.
Breshears, D., & Lubbe-DeBeers, C. (2014). A qualitative analysis of adult children’s advice for parents coming out to their children. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 45, 231–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035520
Breshears, D., & Lubbe-DeBeers, C. (2016). Same-sex parented families’ negotiation of minority social identity in South Africa. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 12, 346–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2015k.1080134
Brewaeys, A., Ponjaert, I., Van Hall, E. V., & Golombok, S. (1997). Donor insemination: Child development and family functioning in lesbian mother families. Human Reproduction, 12, 1349–1359.
Brodzinsky, D. M., & Goldberg, A. E. (2016). Contact with birth family in adoptive families headed by lesbian, gay male, and heterosexual parents. Children and Youth Services Review, 62, 9–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.01.014
Cahn, N. R. (2012). The new kinship: Constructing donor-conceived families. NYU Press.
Carone, N. (2022). Family alliance and intergenerational transmission of coparenting in gay and heterosexual single-father families through surrogacy: Associations with child attachment security. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, 7713–7731. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137713
Chan, R. W., Raboy, B., & Patterson, C. J. (1998). Psychosocial adjustment among children conceived via donor insemination by lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Child Development, 69, 443–457.
Coontz, S. (2020). How to make your marriage gayer. New York Times, Feb. 13 2020.
Costa, P. A., & Salinas-Quiroz, F. (2018). A comparative study of attitudes toward same-gender parenting and gay and lesbian rights in Portugal and Mexico. Journal of Homosexuality, 66, 1909.
Costa, P. A., & Shenkman, G. (2020). LGBTQ parent families in non-Western contexts. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBTQ parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (2nd ed.). Springer.
Cowan, C. P., & Cowan, P. A. (1992). When partners become parents: The big life change for couples. Basic Books.
Dickey, L. M., Ducheny, K. M., & Ehrbar, R. D. (2016). Family creation options for transgender and gender nonconforming people. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3, 173–179. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000178
Erez, C., & Shenkman, G. (2016). Gay dads are happier: Subjective well-being among gay and heterosexual fathers. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 12, 451–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2015.1102688
Erich, S., Kanenberg, H., Case, K., Allen, T., & Bogdanos, T. (2009). An empirical analysis of factors affecting adolescent attachment in adoptive families with homosexual and straight parents. Children & Youth Services Review, 31, 398–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.09.004
Falk, P. J. (1989). Lesbian mothers: Psychosocial assumptions in family law. American Psychologist, 44, 941–947.
Farr, R. H. (2017a). Factors associated with relationship dissolution and post-dissolution adjustment among lesbian adoptive couples. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 21, 88–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/10894160.2016.1142354
Farr, R. H. (2017b). Does parental sexual orientation matter? A longitudinal follow-up of adoptive families with school-age children. Developmental Psychology, 53, 252–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000228
Farr, R. H., & Goldberg, A. E. (2015). Contact between birth and adoptive families during the first year post-placement: Perspectives of lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents. Adoption Quarterly, 18, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926755.2014.895466
Farr, R. H., & Goldberg, A. E. (2018). Sexual orientation, gender identity, and adoption law. Family Court Review, 56, 374–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12354
Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2009). Transracial adoption by lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents: Who completes transracial adoptions and with what results? Adoption Quarterly, 12, 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926750903313328
Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2013). Coparenting among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples: Associations with adopted children's outcomes. Child Development, 84, 1226–1240. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12046
Farr, R. H., Forssell, S. L., & Patterson, C. J. (2010a). Parenting and child development in adoptive families: Does parental sexual orientation matter? Applied Developmental Science, 14, 164–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2010.500958
Farr, R. H., Forssell, S. L., & Patterson, C. J. (2010b). Lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive parents: Couple and relationship issues. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6, 199–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504281003705436
Farr, R. H., Bruun, S. T., Doss, K. M., & Patterson, C. J. (2018). Children’s gender-typed behavior from early to middle childhood in adoptive families with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents. Sex Roles, 78, 528–541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0812-5
Farr, R. H., Simon, K. A., & Goldberg, A. E. (2020a). Separation and divorce among LGBTQ-parent families. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBTQ-Parent Families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (2nd ed.). Springer.
Farr, R. H., Vazquez, C. P., & Patterson, C. J. (2020b). LGBTQ adoptive parents and their children. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBTQ-Parent Families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (2nd ed.). Springer.
Fish, J. N., & Russell, S. T. (2018). Queering methodologies to understand queer families. Family Relations, 67, 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12297
Flores, A. R., & Park, A. (2018). Polarized progress: Social acceptance of LGBT people in 141 countries, 1981 to 2014. The Williams Institute. Retrieved from: http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/polarizedprogress
Fuege’, E. A., Cyr, C., Cossette, L., & Julien, D. (2020). Adoptive gay fathers’ sensitivity and child attachment and behavior problems. Attachment and Human Development, 22, 247–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2018.1557224
Fulcher, M., Sutfin, E. L., & Patterson, C. J. (2008). Individual differences in gender development: Associations with parental sexual orientation, attitudes, and division of labor. Sex Roles, 58, 330–341.
Fulton v. Philadelphia, 593 U.S. ___. (2021).
Gartrell, N., Banks, A., Reed, N., Hamilton, J., Rodes, C., & Deck, A. (2000). The National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study: 3. Interviews with mothers of five year olds. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 542–548.
Gartrell, N., Deck, A., Rodas, C., Peyser, H., & Banks, A. (2005). The National Lesbian Family Study: 4. Interviews with the 10-year-old children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 518–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.75.4.518
Gartrell, N., Bos, H., Peyser, H., Deck, A., & Rodas, C. (2011). Family characteristics, custody arrangements, and adolescent well-being after lesbian mother bead. Family Relations, 60, 572–585.
Gates, G. J. (2013). LGBT parenting in the United States. The Williams Institute. Retrieved from http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp- content/uploads/LGBT-Parenting.pdf
Gilfoyle, N., & Dvoskin, J. A. (2017). APA’s amicus curiae program: Bringing psychological research to judicial decisions. American Psychologist, 72, 753–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000221
Goldberg, A. E. (2009a). Lesbian and heterosexual preadoptive couples’ openness to transracial adoption. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79, 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015354
Goldberg, A. E. (2009b). Heterosexual, lesbian, and gay preadoptive parents’ preferences about child gender. Sex Roles, 61, 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9598-4
Goldberg, A. E. (2012). Gay dads: Transitions to adoptive fatherhood. NYU Press.
Goldberg, S. K., & Conron, K. J. (2018). How many same-sex couples in the U.S. are raising children? The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/ research/parenting/how-many-same-sex-parents-in-us/
Goldberg, A. E., & Garcia, R. I. (2015). Predictors of relationships dissolution in lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 394–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000095
Goldberg, A. E., & Garcia, R. L. (2016). Gender-typed behavior over time in children with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 854–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000226
Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2008). Social support and psychological well-being in lesbian and heterosexual preadoptive couples. Family Relations, 57, 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00500.x
Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2009). Perceived parenting skill across the transition to adoptive parenthood among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 861–870. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017009
Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2011). Stigma, social context, and mental health: Lesbian and gay couples across the transition to adoptive parenthood. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021684
Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2013). Predictors of psychological adjustment in early placed adopted children with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 431–442. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032911
Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2014). Predictors of parenting stress in lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive parents during early parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 28, 125–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036007
Goldberg, A. E., Downing, J. B., & Richardson, H. B. (2009). The transition from infertility to adoption: Perceptions of lesbian and heterosexual preadoptive couples. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 26, 938–963. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407509345652
Goldberg, A. E., Smith, J. Z., & Kashy, D. A. (2010). Preadoptive factors predicting lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples’ relationship quality across the transition to adoptive parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 24, 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019615
Goldberg, A. E., Kinkler, L. A., Richardson, H. B., & Downing, J. B. (2011). Lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples in open adoption arrangements: A qualitative study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73, 502–518. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00821.x
Goldberg, A. E., Gartrell, N. K., & Gates, G. J. (2014a). Research report on LGB-parent families. The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7gr4970w
Goldberg, A. E., Kinkler, L. A., Moyer, A. M., & Weber, E. (2014b). Intimate relationship challenges in early parenthood among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples adopting via the child welfare system. Professional Psychology, 45, 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037443
Goldberg, A. E., Garcia, R., & Manley, M. H. (2018). Monosexual and nonmonosexual women in same-sex couples’ relationship quality during the first five years of parenthood. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 33, 190–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2017.1419561
Goldberg, A. E., & Allen, K. R. (Eds.) (2020). LGBTQ-Parent Families: Innovations in Research and Implications for Practice. New York: Springer.
Goldberg, A. E., Tornello, S., Farr, R., Smith, J. Z., & Miranda, L. (2020a). Barriers to adoption and foster care and openness to child characteristics among transgender adults. Children and Youth Services Review, 109, 104699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104699
Goldberg, N. G., Schneebaum, A., Durso, L. E., & Badgett, M. V. L. (2020b). LGBTQ parent families in the United States and economic well-being. In A. Goldberg & K. Allen (Eds.), LGBTQ-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (2nd ed.). Springer.
Golombok, S. (2015). Modern families: Parents and children in new family forms. Cambridge University Press.
Golombok, S., Spencer, A., & Rutter, M. (1983). Children in lesbian and single-parent households: Psychosexual and psychiatric appraisal. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 551–572.
Golombok, S., Tasker, F., & Murray, C. (1997). Children raised in fatherless families from infancy: Family relationships and the socioemotional development of children of lesbian and single heterosexual mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 783–791.
Golombok, S., Perry, B., Burston, A., Murray, C., Mooney-Somers, J., Stevens, M., Golding, J., et al. (2003). Children with lesbian parents: A community study. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 39, 20–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.1.20
Golombok, S., Mellish, L., Jennings, S., Casey, P., Tasker, F., & Lamb, M. E. (2014). Adoptive gay father families: Parent-child relationships and children’s psychological adjustment. Child Development, 85, 456–468. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12155
Golombok, S., Blake, L., Slutsky, J., Raffanello, E., Roman, G., & Eherhardt, A. (2018a). Parenting and the adjustment of children born to gay fathers through surrogacy. Child Development, 89, 1223–1233. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12728
Golombok, S., Blake, L., Casey, P., Roman, G., & Jadva, V. (2018b). Children born through reproductive donation: A longitudinal study of child adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 653–660. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12015
Gonzalez, M., & Lopez-Gavino, F. (2022). What about the sexual orientation of the offspring of lesbian and gay parents? A multidimensional, time and gender-based answer. Journal of Homosexuality. Published online June 27 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2022.2086750
Grant, J. M., Mottet, L. A., & Tanis, J. (2011). Injustice at every turn: A report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force.
Gross, M. (2009). The desire for parenthood among lesbians and gay men. In D. Marre (Ed.), International adoption. NYU Press.
Gross, M., & Richardot, S. (2020). Conception narratives and third party reproduction in lesbian-parented families in France. International Social Science Journal, 70, 235–236.
Hafford-Letchfield, T., Cocker, C., Rutter, D., Tinarwo, M., McCormack, K., & Manning, R. (2019). What do we know about transgender parenting? Findings from a systematic review. Health and Social Care in the Community, 27, 1111–1125.
Herrmann-Green, L. K., & Gehring, T. M. (2007). The German lesbian family study: Planning for parenthood via donor insemination. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 3, 351–395. https://doi.org/10.1300/J461v03n04_02
Hitchens, D. J., & Kirkpatrick, M. J. (1985). Lesbian mothers/gay fathers. In D. H. Schetky & E. P. Benedek (Eds.), Emerging issues in child psychiatry and the law (pp. 115–125). Brunner/Mazel.
Imrie, S., Zadeh, S., Wylie, K., & Golombok, S. (2021). Children with trans parents: Parent-child relationship quality and psychological well-being. Parenting, 21, 185–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2020.1792194
Jennings, S., Mellish, L., Tasker, F., Lamb, M., & Golombok, S. (2014). Why adoption? Gay, lesbian, and heterosexual adoptive parents’ reproductive experiences and reasons for adoption. Adoption Quarterly, 17, 205.
Lamb, M. E. (2012). Mothers, fathers, families, and circumstances: Factors affecting children’s adjustment. Applied Developmental Science, 16, 98–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2012.667344
Lavner, J. A., Waterman, J., & Peplau, L. A. (2012). Can gay and lesbian parents promote healthy development in high-risk children adopted from foster care? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82, 465–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01176.x
Lavner, J. A., Waterman, J., & Peplau, L. A. (2014). Parent adjustment over time in gay, lesbian, and heterosexual parent families adopting from foster care. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84, 46–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0098853
Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 578. (2003).
Li, Y. B., & Patterson, C. J. (2022). Parenting aspirations among Chinese international students of diverse sexual identities: A cultural perspective. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 18, 20–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2021.1999360
MacCallum, F., & Golombok, S. (2004). Children raised in fatherless families from infancy: A follow-up of children of lesbian and single heterosexual mothers at early adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1407–1419.
Mallon, G. P. (2011). The home study assessment process for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender prospective foster and adoptive families. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 7, 9–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2011.537229
Manley, M., & Ross, L. (2020). What do we know about bisexual parenting? A continuing call for research. In A. Goldberg & K. Allen (Eds.), LGBTQ-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (2nd ed.). Springer.
McConnachie, A. L., Ayed, N., Jadva, V., Lamb, M., Tasker, F., & Golombok, S. (2020). Father-child attachment in adoptive gay father families. Attachment and Human Behavior, 22, 110–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2019.1589067
McKay, K., Ross, L. E., & Goldberg, A. E. (2010). Adaptation to parenthood during the post-adoption period: A review of the literature. Adoption Quarterly, 13, 125–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926755.2010.481040
Moore, M. R. (2011). Invisible families: Gay identities, relationships, and motherhood among Black women. University of California Press.
Moore, M. R., & Stambolis-Ruhstorfer, M. (2013). LGBT sexuality and families at the start of the twenty-first century. Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 491–507. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145643
Movement Advancement Project. (2018, July). Creating a license to discriminate: 2018 Federal Child Welfare Amendment. (Issue Brief). Retrieved from http://www.lgbtmap.org/2018-child-welfare-amendment
Nosek, B. A., & Errington, T. M. (2020). What is replication? PLoS Biology, 18, e3000691. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000691
Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S. Ct. 2584. (2015).
Patterson, C. J. (1992). Children of lesbian and gay parents. Child Development, 63, 1025–1042.
Patterson, C. J. (1995). Adoption of minor children by lesbian and gay adults: A social science perspective. Duke Journal of Gender Law and Policy, 2, 191–205.
Patterson, C. J. (1996). Lesbian mothers and their children: Findings from the Bay Area families study. In J. Laird & R. J. Green (Eds.), Lesbians and gays in couples and families: A handbook for therapists (pp. 420–437). Jossey-Bass.
Patterson, C. J. (2000). Family relationships of lesbians and gay men: A decade review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1052–1069.
Patterson, C. J. (2006). Children of lesbian and gay parents. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 241–244.
Patterson, C. J. (2009). Children of lesbian and gay parents: Psychology, law, and policy. American Psychologist, 64, 727–736.
Patterson, C. J. (2013). Children of lesbian and gay parents: Psychology, law, and policy. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/2329-0382.1.S.27
Patterson, C. J. (2017). Parents’ sexual orientation and children’s development. Child Development Perspectives, 11, 45–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12207
Patterson, C. J., & Farr, R. H. (2017). What shall we call ourselves? Last names among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples and their adopted children. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 13, 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2016.1169239
Patterson, C. J., & Farr, R. H. (2022). Sexual orientation, gender identity, and Foster Care: What can social science offer in a case like Fulton v. City of Philadelphia? Family Law Review, 60, 10.
Patterson, C. J., & Riskind, R. G. (2010). To be a parent: Issues in family formation among gay and lesbian adults. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6, 326–340.
Patterson, C. J., Riskind, R. G., & Tornello, S. L. (2014). Sexual orientation and parenting: A global perspective. In A. Abela & J. Walker (Eds.), Contemporary issues in family studies: Global perspectives on partnerships, parenting, and support in a changing world. Wiley/Blackwell.
Patterson, C. J., Sepulveda, M.-J., & White, J. (Eds.). (2020). Understanding the well-being of LGBTQI+ populations. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25877
Patterson, C. J., Farr, R. H., & Goldberg, A. E. (2021). LGBTQ+ parents and their children. National Council on Family Relations Policy Brief. Author.
Perrin, E., Hurley, S., Mattern, K., Flavin, L., & Pinderhughes, E. (2019). Barriers and stigma experienced by gay fathers and their children. Pediatrics, 143, e20180683.
Pilcher, J. (2017). Names and “doing gender”: How forenames and surnames contribute to gender identities, difference, and inequalities. Sex Roles, 77, 812–822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0805-4
Raleigh, E. (2012). Are same-sex and single adoptive parents more likely to adopt transracially? A national analysis of race, family structure, and the adoption marketplace. Sociological Perspectives, 55, 449–471. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2012.55.3.449
Reczek, C. (2020). Sexual- and gender-minority families: A 2010 to 2020 decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82, 300–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12607
Riskind, R., & Patterson, C. J. (2010). Parenting intentions and desires among childless lesbian, gay, and heterosexual individuals. Journal of Family Psychology, 24, 78–81.
Riskind, R. G., & Tornello, S. L. (2017). Sexual orientation and future parenthood in a 2011–2013 nationally representative United States sample. Journal of Family Psychology, 31, 792–798. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000316
Rivers, D. R. (2013). Radical relations: Lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and their children in the United States since World War II. University of North Carolina Press.
Salinas-Quiroz, F., Rodríguez-Sánchez, F., Costa, P. A., Rosales, M., Silva, P., & Cambón, V. (2018). Can children have ordinary expectable caregiving environments in unconventional contexts? Quality of care organization in three Mexican same-sex planned families. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2349–2368. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02349
Salinas-Quiroz, F., Rodriguez-Sanchez, F., Cambon, V., Silva, P., Costa, P. A., & Martinez, A. (2022). Parental secure base support and child secure base use in Mexican same-sex families. Unpublished Manuscript. Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts University.
Shapiro, J. (2020). The law governing LGBTQ-parent families in the United States. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBTQ-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (2nd ed.). Springer.
Shechner, T., Slone, M., Lobel, T. E., & Shechter, R. (2013). Children’s adjustment in non- traditional families in Israel: The effect of parental sexual orientation and the number of parents on children’s development. Child: Care, Health and Development, 39, 178–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01337.x
Shenkman, G., & Shmotkin, D. (2014). “Kids are joy”: Psychological welfare among Israeli gay fathers. Journal of Family Issues, 35, 1926-1939.
Shenkman, G., Gato, J., Tasker, F., Erez, C., & Leal, D. (2021). Deciding to parent or remain childfree: Comparing sexual minority and heterosexual childless adults from Israel, Portugal, and the United Kingdom. Journal of Family Psychology, advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1027/fam0000843
Simon, K. A., Tornello, S. L., Farr, R. H., & Bos, H. M. (2018). Envisioning future parenthood among bisexual, lesbian, and heterosexual women. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 5, 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000267
Sroufe, L. A. (1978). Attachment and the roots of competence. Human Nature, 1, 50–57.
Sroufe, L. A., & Waters, E. (1977). Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Development, 48, 1184–1199.
Stotzer, R. L., Herman, J. L., & Hasenbush, A. (2014). Transgender parenting: A review of existing literature. The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3rp0v7qv
Sumontha, J., Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2016). Social support and coparenting among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 987–996. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000253
Sumontha, J., Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2017). Children’s gender development: Associations with parental sexual orientation, division of labor, and gender ideology. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4, 438–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000242
Tornello, S. L., & Bos, H. (2017). Parenting intentions among transgender individuals. LGBT Health, 4, 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2016.0153
Tornello, S. L., Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2011). Predictors of parenting stress among gay adoptive fathers in the United States. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 591–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024480
Tornello, S. L., Riskind, R. G., & Babic, A. (2019). Transgender and gender nonbinary parents’ pathways to parenthood. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 6, 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000323
Van Rijn-von Gelderen, L., Bos, H., Jorgenson, T. D., Ellis-Davies, K., Winstanley, A., Golombok, S., Rubio, B., Gross, M., Veccho, O., & Lamb, M. E. (2018). Wellbeing of gay fathers with children born through surrogacy: A comparison with lesbian-mother families and heterosexual IVF parent families. Human Reproduction, 33, 101–108. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dex339
Veldorale-Griffin, A. (2014). Transgender parents and their adult children’s experiences of disclosure and transition. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 10, 475–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2013.866063
Wainright, J. L., Russell, S. T., & Patterson, C. J. (2004). Psychosocial adjustment and school outcomes of adolescents with same-sex parents. Child Development, 75, 1886–1898.
Waters, E., & Deane, K. (1985). Defining and assessing individual differences in attachment relationships: Q-methodology and the organization of behavior in infancy and early childhood. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Monographs of the society for research in child development (Vol. 50, nos. 1–2, pp. 41–65).
White, T., & Ettner, R. (2007). Adaptation and adjustment in children of transsexual parents. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 16, 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0591-y
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Patterson, C.J. (2024). Parental Sexual Orientation, Parental Gender Identity, and the Development of Young Children. In: Osofsky, J.D., Fitzgerald, H.E., Keren, M., Puura, K. (eds) WAIMH Handbook of Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48627-2_22
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48627-2_22
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-48626-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-48627-2
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)