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Treatment of Palm Oil Mill Effluent

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Waste Treatment in the Biotechnology, Agricultural and Food Industries

Part of the book series: Handbook of Environmental Engineering ((HEE,volume 27))

Abstract

Palm oil is one of the two most significant vegetable oils on the global market for oils and fats. Despite its many positive effects on agriculture and the economy, the palm oil sector has also caused serious environmental problems, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, eutrophication, and acidification. The extraction of crude palm oil (CPO) results in several by-products, both solid and liquid, such as empty fruit bunch (EFB), palm kernel shell (PKS), mesocarp fibre (MF), and palm oil mill effluent (POME). At 67%, POME is the most abundant by-product of the CPO production process. The negative effects of POME on the environment are real and must be mitigated prior to discharge. POME has the potential to cause severe damage to ecosystems if it is not properly treated. This chapter will therefore provide a more in-depth explanation of the conventional and advanced treatment technologies for POME produced during CPO production. In addition to a brief overview of palm oil production globally and in Southeast Asian countries, this chapter will delve into the following topics: the CPO production process (including sterilization, threshing, digesting, screw pressing, depericarping, clarification of CPO, kernel separation, and drying); the characteristic of POME; the merits and demerits of POME treatment methods; and current and future perspectives of the POME treatment technologies for the palm oil industry.

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Abbreviations

AN:

Ammoniacal nitrogen

AOP:

Advanced oxidation process

AP:

Anaerobic pond

AW:

Artificial wetlands

BOD:

Biochemical oxygen demand

CDM:

Clean development mechanism

CER:

Carbon emission reduction

COD:

Chemical oxygen demand

CPO:

Crude palm oil

CW:

Constructed wetlands

DEDE:

Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency

DOE:

Department of Environment

EFB:

Empty fruit bunch

FAO:

Food and Agriculture Organization

FELDA:

Federal Land Development Authority

FFB:

Fresh fruit bunch

FP:

Facultative pond

FWS:

Free water surface

HF:

Horizontal flow

HRT:

Hydraulic retention time

IAAB:

Integrated anaerobic–aerobic bioreactor

ISPO:

Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil

MF:

Mesocarp fibre

MP:

Maturation pond

MPOB:

Malaysian Palm Oil Board

OAE:

Office of Agricultural Economics

OER:

Oil extraction rate

PAC:

Polyaluminium chloride

PES:

Polyethersulphone

PKS:

Palm kernel shell

POME:

Palm oil mill effluent

PVDF:

Polyvinylidene fluoride

RSM:

Response surface methodology

RSPO:

Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil

SCWG:

Supercritical water gasification

SRT:

Solid retention time

TN:

Total nitrogen

TSS:

Total suspended solids

UASB:

Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket

USEPA:

US Environmental Protection Agency

VF:

Vertical flow

WSP:

Waste stabilization pond

ZLD:

Zero liquid discharge

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

    Nor Habsah Md Sabiani & Rosnani Alkarimiah

  2. River Engineering and Urban Drainage Research Centre (REDAC), Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

    Khairul Rahmah Ayub

  3. School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

    Muaz Mohd Zaini Makhtar

  4. School of Civil Engineering / Solid Waste Management Cluster, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

    Hamidi Abdul Aziz

  5. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cleveland State University, Strongsville, OH, USA

    Yung-Tse Hung

  6. Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Latham, NY, USA

    Lawrence K. Wang & Mu-Hao Sung Wang

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  1. Nor Habsah Md Sabiani
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  3. Khairul Rahmah Ayub
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    Lawrence K. Wang

  2. Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Latham, NY, USA

    Mu-Hao Sung Wang

  3. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cleveland State University, Strongsville, OH, USA

    Yung-Tse Hung

Glossary

Acetogenesis

Conversion of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and alcohols into acetic acid, CO2, and hydrogen during the anaerobic digestion process.

Acidogenesis

Further breakdown of simple sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids into alcohols and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) during the anaerobic digestion process.

Adsorption

is a process in which material (adsorbate) travels from a gas or liquid phase and forms a superficial monomolecular layer on a solid or liquid condensed phase (substrate).

Advanced oxidation process (AOP)

is a set of chemical treatment procedures designed to remove organic (and sometimes inorganic) materials in water and wastewater by oxidation through reactions with hydroxyl radicals (·OH).

Aerobic ponds

A lagoon forms the third treatment stage in waste stabilization ponds. It is a shallow pond with a large surface area to enable light penetration and oxygenation by wind mixing. The effluent is generally free of pathogens but rich in nutrients.

Alternative fuel

A fuel other than petrol or diesel for powering motor vehicles, such as natural gas, methanol, or electricity.

Anaerobic ponds

are deep treatment ponds that exclude oxygen and encourage the growth of bacteria, which break down the effluent.

Bioremediation

The metabolic cleansing of pollution by-products by living organisms.

Carcinogenic elements

The elements that produce or tend to produce cancer.

Central composite design (CCD)

is the most commonly used fractional factorial design used in the response surface model. In this design, the centre points are augmented with a group of axial points called star points. With this design, quickly first-order and second-order terms can be estimated.

Certified emission reduction (CER)

is a certificate issued by the United Nations to member nations for preventing one tonne of carbon dioxide emissions. It is a certificate issued by the United Nations to member nations for preventing one tonne of carbon dioxide emissions.

Clarification tank

is a key piece of wastewater treatment equipment that separates solids from water.

Clarification

The process to separate the oil from the crude palm oil (CPO) and the temperature is maintained at 90 °C to enhance the oil separation.

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

is a United Nations-run carbon offset scheme allowing countries to fund greenhouse gas emissions-reducing projects in other countries and claim the saved emissions as part of their own efforts to meet international emissions targets.

Coagulation

is the destabilization of colloidal particles brought about by the addition of a chemical reagent called a coagulant.

Composting

The biological degradation process of heterogeneous solid organic materials under controlled moist, self-heating, and aerobic conditions to obtain a stable material that can be used as organic fertilizer.

Crude palm oil (CPO)

is an edible oil derived from the pulp of oil palms.

Deforestation

The removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve the conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use.

Depericarping

The process of separating fibre and nuts. The nuts were extracted through the digesting and pressing operations for depericarp, and then the leftover fibres were sent to the nut-breaking machine or plant.

Developing nations

The countries that have a standard of living or level of industrial production well below that possible with financial or technical aid; a country that is not yet highly industrialized.

Digesting

The method of obtaining palm oil is by breaking down the fruit under steam-heated temperatures (80–90 °C).

Dissolved air floatation (DAF) process

is a water treatment process that clarifies wastewater by the removal of suspended matter such as oil or solids. The removal is achieved by dissolving air in the water or wastewater under pressure and then releasing the air at atmospheric pressure in a flotation tank basin.

Domestic sewage

is wastewater that is removed from the daily life of households, hotels, restaurants, schools, and shopping malls.

Empty fruit bunch (EFB)

is a kind of biomass formed during the production process of palm oil.

Energy efficiency

The use of less energy to perform the same task or produce the same result.

Facultative ponds

A lagoon that forms the second treatment stage in waste stabilization ponds.

Flocculation

is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into microfloc and after into bulky floccules, which can be settled called floc.

Fresh fruit bunches (FFB)

The raw material for palm oil mills.

Greenhouse gases (GHGs)

The gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range, causing the greenhouse effect.

Gross domestic product (GDP)

is a monetary measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced and sold at a specific time by countries.

Hydraulic retention time (HRT)

The average time interval over which the substrate is kept inside the digester.

Hydrocyclone

is a density-based separation device that uses fluid pressure to generate centrifugal forces and a fluid pattern.

Hydrolysis

is the breakdown of complex insoluble organic matter into simple sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids during the anaerobic digestion process.

Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO)

is Indonesia’s national sustainability certification scheme for palm oil.

Integrated anaerobic–aerobic bioreactor (IAAB)

is the combination of anaerobic and aerobic processes into a single reactor.

Integrated treatment method

The combination category of treatment.

Kernel separation

The nut from the depericarping procedure will be sorted by winnowing and hydrocyclone.

Kyoto Protocol

is an international treaty that extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions based on the scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that human-made CO2 emissions are driving it.

Life cycle analysis (LCA)

is a method of quantifying the environmental impacts associated with a given product.

Membrane filtration

is a pressure-driven separation process that employs a membrane for both mechanical and chemical sieving of particles and macromolecules.

Mesocarp fibre (MF)

The biomass residue obtained after pressing the palm fruits for palm oil extraction.

Methanogenesis

The acetic acid and hydrogen are converted into methane and carbon dioxide by methanogenic bacteria during the anaerobic digestion process.

Microwave irradiation (MI)

is electromagnetic ultrahigh-frequency radiation, including decimetre, centimetre, and millimetre ranges of radio waves with a frequency of 0.3–300 GHz, corresponding to a wavelength from 1 m to 1 mm.

Organic loading rates (OLR)

are defined as the amount of organic waste fed per unit volume of the digester per day.

Palm kernel shell (PKS)

is a waste product obtained after the processing of palm kernel.

Palm oil mill effluent (POME)

is wastewater generated from palm oil milling activities that require effective treatment before discharge into watercourses due to its highly polluting properties.

Photochemical processes

include those produced by direct photolysis by UV light, UV/H2O2, UV/TiO2, photo-Fenton, and photo-Fenton-like processes.

Physicochemical treatment

involves using chemicals that can modify the physical state of colloidal particles, which helps in making them more stable and coagulable for further treatment or filtration purposes.

Phytoremediation

is a type of in-situ remediation technology that makes use of the natural capabilities of the plants that are being treated.

Renewable energy

Any naturally occurring, theoretically inexhaustible source of energy, such as biomass, solar, wind, tidal, wave, and hydroelectric power that is not derived from fossil or nuclear fuel.

Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

is a series of mathematical/statistical techniques for empirical model building and exploitation of the model.

Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)

is a non-profit membership organization that is responsible for promoting the growth and use of sustainable palm oil products through global standards and multistakeholder governance.

Screw pressing

The methods of extracting crude palm oil (CPO) from fresh fruits.

Settling pond

is an earthen or concrete structure using sedimentation to remove settleable matter and turbidity from wastewater.

Sludge stabilization

Stabilization processes as applied to sludge are those which reduce its odour and putrescence (i.e. decay) and level of pathogenic organisms.

Solid waste management (SWM)

is the discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid waste in a manner that follows the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and environmental conditions.

Solids retention time (SRT)

The average time the activated-sludge solids are in the system.

Sterilization

The use of high-temperature wet-heat treatment of loose fruit that uses pressurized steam.

Supercritical water gasification (SCWG)

is a promising thermochemical technology that can be used to convert high moisture content biomass to syngas.

Threshing

Removal or stripping of fresh fruit from the bunches.

Tropical forests

Type of forest found in areas with high regular rainfall and no more than 2 months of low rainfall.

Ultrasonic cavitation

is the formation, growth, and subsequent collapse of bubbles over a small time period which results in the generation of large magnitudes of energy over a specific location.

Ultrasonication (US)

is an irradiation of ultrasound with a frequency beyond the normal hearing range of humans (>15–20 kHz), or it is simply mechanical waves at a frequency above the threshold of human hearing.

Value-added products

Any product that has undergone additional processes or been paired with additional products in order to increase the total value of the product.

Waste-activated sludge (WAS)

The excess activated biological material produced by activated sludge plants that are removed from the treatment process to keep the ratio of biomass to food supplied in the wastewater in balance.

Waste stabilization ponds

are ponds designed and built for wastewater treatment to reduce the organic content and remove pathogens from wastewater.

Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) concept

Refers to a treatment process in which the plant discharges no liquid effluent into surface waters, in effect eliminating the environmental pollution associated with treatment.

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Sabiani, N.H.M. et al. (2024). Treatment of Palm Oil Mill Effluent. In: Wang, L.K., Sung Wang, MH., Hung, YT. (eds) Waste Treatment in the Biotechnology, Agricultural and Food Industries. Handbook of Environmental Engineering, vol 27. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-44768-6_7

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