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Local Governance in Austria: Diversity in Homogeneity

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Local Governance in Multi-Layered Systems

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 108))

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Abstract

Compared to other federal states, the Austrian system of local governance is characterised by an exceptionally high degree of homogeneity. Indeed, the Federal Constitution (B-VG) provides for a uniform model of municipalities, specifies the main municipal institutions, and allows for a strong material influence of the Federation (Bund) on the municipalities at least in areas of federal competence. Nevertheless, also in Austria the States (Länder) are the main actors in the field of local governance: they are responsible for municipal organisation, including territorial demarcation, and generally have much stronger relations with the municipalities, also because of the Austrian system of ‘indirect’ federal administration. What follows is a considerable degree of diversity within—and despite—the federal constitutional homogeneity of local governance systems. This chapter shows the different shades of this peculiar system of local governance among others in relation to the institutional and material design of Austrian municipalities, their—individual and collective—relations to Bund and Länder, the different means of horizontal cooperation, and the system of local finance, where the otherwise dualistic Austrian federalism exceptionally assigns a strong and equal position also to the municipal level.

The author would like to thank Paul Patreider for his valuable research assistance.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    BGBl (Federal Law Gazette) 1/1920, republication in BGBl 1/1930. Note that the B-VG is the most important (but not the only) part of the fragmented Austrian federal constitutional order, which also consists of many other constitutional laws and provisions (cf. Art. 44(1) B-VG). A translation of the B-VG into English, last updated in 2014, is available at http://ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/Erv/ERV_1930_1/ERV_1930_1.pdf.

  2. 2.

    Cf. Gamper (2008), p. 72; Weber (2005), pp. 415–416; but see Eberhard (2013), pp. 1–3.

  3. 3.

    Art. 116(1) B-VG.

  4. 4.

    Cf. http://statistik.at/services/tools/services/regionales/regionale-gliederungen.

  5. 5.

    Since Austria had 8,978,929 inhabitants as of 1 January 2022 (http://statistik.at/statistiken/bevoelkerung-und-soziales/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstand/bevoelkerung-zu-jahres-/-quartalsanfang). Without Vienna (see below at Sect. 2.1.1), this average shrinks to 3369. See also the interesting table on the population structure of municipalities at http://gemeindebund.at/themen-zahlen-und-fakten-struktur-der-gemeinden.

  6. 6.

    Districts (see below at Sect. 1.1.2), municipal associations (Sect. 6.1), and subdivisions of municipalities (Sect. 2.2.2) are not separate territorial entities.

  7. 7.

    Cf. Pernthaler and Gamper (2005), p. 66.

  8. 8.

    RGBl (Imperial Law Gazette) 170/1849. Note, however, that the transition was gradual and different forms of Gemeinden had existed long before 1849. See Schennach (2012), pp. 378–390.

  9. 9.

    RGBl 18/1862.

  10. 10.

    See Art. 116(1) and 118(1) B-VG and the slightly different terms used in Art. II Provisorisches Gemeindegesetz and IV Reichsgemeindegesetz. See also below at Sects. 3.2 and 3.3.

  11. 11.

    §§ 10–11 Act of 19/5/1868, RGBl 44/1868 (and before the Imperial resolution of 26/6/1849, RGBl 295/1849).

  12. 12.

    Art. 102(1) and (2) B-VG. See also § 8(5)(a) Übergangsgesetz (ÜG) 1920 [Transition Act], BGBl 2/1920, republication in BGBl 368/1925.

  13. 13.

    § 8(5)(b) ÜG 1920. Cf. also Schmetterer (2020), p. 16 (‘Verländerung’, literally ‘landification’, of district authorities).

  14. 14.

    See Bußjäger et al. (2018).

  15. 15.

    According to Gamper (2020), p. 107, with 126 amendments since the 1930 republication, there is no other constitution as fragmented and at the same time as frequently amended.

  16. 16.

    BGBl 205/1962. See below at Sect. 1.2.2.

  17. 17.

    Cf. Art. 115–117 B-VG in the original version; Kahl (2006), para 1.

  18. 18.

    Cf. Art. 120 B-VG; Holoubek et al. (2013), pp. 130–131.

  19. 19.

    First Art. 116(4) B-VG, as amended by BGBl 205/1962; later Art. 116a and 116b B-VG, as introduced by BGBl 490/1984 and BGBl I 60/2011 respectively. See below at Sect. 6.

  20. 20.

    Art. 115(3) B-VG, as introduced by BGBl 695/1988. See below at Sect. 5.1.

  21. 21.

    Art. 117(7)—today (8)—B-VG, as introduced by BGBl 490/1984. See below at Sect. 2.2.2.

  22. 22.

    Art. 117(6) B-VG, as amended by BGBl 504/1994. See below at Sect. 2.2.1.

  23. 23.

    Art. 117(2) B-VG, as amended by BGBl 1013/1994. See also Art. 23c(4) and 23d(1) B-VG.

  24. 24.

    BGBl I 2/2008.

  25. 25.

    Today: Chapter VI (after the introduction of a new chapter V with BGBl I 138/2017).

  26. 26.

    With common provisions on ‘other’ self-administrating bodies such as the Economic Chamber and the Chamber of Labour. Cf. Eberhard and Lachmayer (2008).

  27. 27.

    See, in the B-VG, Art. 7(1), as amended by BGBl I 87/1997, and Art. 8(2), as added by BGBl I 68/2000; without reference to the Republic also Art. 7(2) and 13(3); outside the B-VG, for instance, already § 1(1) of a 1984 Federal Constitutional Act, BGBl 491/1984.

  28. 28.

    See below at Sect. 7.

  29. 29.

    Cf. Pfeil (2018), pp. 77–80.

  30. 30.

    Cf. especially § 13 and Annex 2 Volksgruppengesetz (VoGrG) [Ethnic Minorities Act], BGBl 396/1976.

  31. 31.

    In 2019. Cf. http://wienerzeitung.at/nachrichten/wirtschaft/oesterreich/2084502 (accessed 20 October 2022).

  32. 32.

    See the 2019 figures, ranging from 24,900 Euro (Weinviertel) to 57,400 Euro (Salzburg and surroundings) at http://statistik.at/statistiken/volkswirtschaft-und-oeffentliche-finanzen/volkswirtschaftliche-gesamtrechnungen/regionale-gesamtrechnungen (accessed 20 October 2022).

  33. 33.

    At least in the five other ‘mature federations’ analysed in this book. Cf. the single chapters and, more in general, Kincaid (2005), p. 438; Steytler (2009), p. 393.

  34. 34.

    Cf. Weber (2009), p. 99; Gamper (2006), p. 68; Eller (2020), p. 78.

  35. 35.

    Cf. especially Art. 117 B-VG. See in detail below at Sect. 2. Uniform rules exist also for other institutional areas such as horizontal cooperation (see below at Sect. 6).

  36. 36.

    Cf. especially Art. 116(1), 118(1) and 119 B-VG. See in detail below at Sect. 3.

  37. 37.

    In turn, the Länder had feared that the municipalities would become a ‘third force’ in the federal state. Cf. the explanatory report: ErlRV 639 9. GP, 6–8 and 11–12; Weber (2009), pp. 99–100; Eller (2020), p. 79 (fn no. 324), noting—with reference to Palermo and Kössler (2017), pp. 286 et seqq.—that detailed federal rules do not necessarily benefit municipalities but can even have the opposite effect.

  38. 38.

    Art. 115(2) B-VG. The term is understood as Gemeindeorganisationsrecht (‘municipal organisation law’). Cf. Eberhard (2012), paras 3–4; Stolzlechner (2013a), para 8; VfSlG (Collection of certain Constitutional Court decisions) 8447/1978. Cf. also Art. 21(1) B-VG (Länder competence for service law of municipal staff).

  39. 39.

    And except for explicit federal competences under Art. 116a(2), 118(7), and 119a(3) B-VG (see below at Sects. 5.2.2 and 6.1). Cf. Stolzlechner (2013a), para 10; Gamper (2008), p. 76.

  40. 40.

    See below at Sect. 3.1.

  41. 41.

    See below at Sect. 5.2.2.

  42. 42.

    See the general distribution of competences in Art. 10–15 B-VG.

  43. 43.

    Except for Carinthia and Styria. For the special case of Vienna see below at Sect. 2.1.1.

  44. 44.

    Cf. the detailed lists in Gamper (2012), pp. 27–29.

  45. 45.

    Gamper (2008), p. 74.

  46. 46.

    Gamper (2008), p. 74; Eller (2020), p. 82 (with further references in fn no. 336); Stolzlechner (2013a), paras 6–7; Stolzlechner (2013d), para 4; Rill (1998), pp. 4–9.

  47. 47.

    Eller (2020), pp. 83–84, Stolzlechner (2013c), para 4; Weber (2005), p. 425.

  48. 48.

    See http://wien.gv.at/statistik/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstand. Graz follows with 295,424 inhabitants (see http://graz.at/cms/beitrag/10034466/7772565). In both cases as of 1 January 2022 and considering only main residences.

  49. 49.

    Art. 5(1) B-VG.

  50. 50.

    Cf. Art. 2(2) B-VG.

  51. 51.

    Cf. Gamper (2006), p. 66; Eller (2020), pp. 5 and 49; Watts (2008), pp. 79–82.

  52. 52.

    For its uniformity and homogeneity see, e.g., Weber (2005), p. 425.

  53. 53.

    Art. 108 B-VG. For these municipal institutions in general see below at Sect. 2.2.

  54. 54.

    LGBl 28/1968. For example, Land Parliament and municipal council meetings are convened separately. Cf. Eller (2020), p. 49 (fn no. 217).

  55. 55.

    Art. 109 B-VG. For further differences see Art. 78b, 78c, 112 and 142(2)(f) B-VG.

  56. 56.

    Note that three of these towns (Eisenstadt, Rust, and Waidhofen an der Ybbs) have less than 20,000 inhabitants but preexisted the introduction of Art. 116(3) B-VG in 1962 (see § 4 of the 1962 Act: below at Sect. 4.1).

  57. 57.

    BGBl I 14/2019.

  58. 58.

    See the list of towns (which comprise all Länder capitals except Bregenz) and statutes in Gamper (2012), p. 28.

  59. 59.

    Art. 118(7) B-VG. See below at Sect. 5.2.2.

  60. 60.

    Art. 127a B-VG.

  61. 61.

    Cf. Gamper (2006), p. 69; Eller (2020), pp. 84–85. See further below at Sect. 7.

  62. 62.

    As towns (Stadtgemeinde or Stadt) and market towns (Marktgemeinde or Markt).

  63. 63.

    The municipal board (Gemeindevorstand) is named town senate (Stadtsenat) in towns with their own statutes and town council (Stadtrat) in towns. Likewise, under Art. 117(7) B-VG, the municipal office (Gemeindeamt) is named town office (Stadtamt) in towns and Magistrat in towns with their own statute—with the substantive difference that only the Magistrat shall be directed by a legally trained employee, the Magistratsdirektor.

  64. 64.

    Art. 117(1) and (7) B-VG.

  65. 65.

    Art. 117(1)(a) and (2) B-VG.

  66. 66.

    Art. 117(3) and (4) B-VG.

  67. 67.

    Art. 117(5) B-VG. See Fallend et al. (2001), pp. 54–55.

  68. 68.

    Art. 117(6) B-VG.

  69. 69.

    Cf. VfSlg 13.500/1993 (violation of the parliamentary-democratic system of local self-government). Since then, all Länder except Lower Austria, Styria, and Vienna have introduced direct elections.

  70. 70.

    Cf. Gamper (2008), p. 82; Stolzlechner (2013d), para 30.

  71. 71.

    Cf. Art. 119(2) and (3) B-VG. See further below at Sect. 3.3.

  72. 72.

    Eberhard (2012), paras 6–16; Gamper (2008), p. 82.

  73. 73.

    Cf. Art. 118(5) B-VG.

  74. 74.

    Gamper (2008), p. 81.

  75. 75.

    See, e.g., § 21(1)(c) Tiroler Gemeindeordnung (TGO) 2001 [Municipal Act of Tyrol], LGBl 36/2001; § 6(1)(4) Salzburger Gemeindeordnung 2019 (GdO 2019) [Municipal Act of Salzburg], LGBl 9/2020.

  76. 76.

    § 14(1) Steiermärkische Gemeindeordnung 1967 (GemO) [Municipal Act of Styria], LGBl 115/1967; § 14(1) Burgenländische Gemeindeordnung 2003 (Bgld. GemO 2003) [Municipal Act of Burgenland], LGBl 55/2003.

  77. 77.

    Cf. §§ 38b–38g GemO. However, it is not an institution stricto sensu as it is not listed in § 14(1) GemO.

  78. 78.

    See, e.g., § 40 NÖ Gemeindeordnung 1973 (NÖ GO 1973) [Municipal Act of Lower Austria], LGBl 1000-0; § 48 GemO. And, in some cases, even village councils (Ortsausschuss): § 57 TGO; § 32 Bgld. GemO 2003.

  79. 79.

    § 3 WStV. Viennese Bezirke cannot be confused with the district level in the other eight Länder, located between the Land and the municipalities. See above at Sect. 1.1.2.

  80. 80.

    Cf. §§ 61 et seqq. WStV. Therefore, the Constitutional Court ruled against the right to vote of non-EU citizens (VfSlg 17.264/2004). In Vienna, unlike all other municipalities, also EU citizens are not allowed to vote at the municipal level (but only in district elections) due to its status as a Land (cf. Art. 6(2) and 95(1) B-VG).

  81. 81.

    See, e.g., VfSlg 16.241/2001; Gamper (2003), pp. 49–57.

  82. 82.

    § 22(1) Gemeindegesetz [Municipal Act], LGBl 40/1985, in conjunction with §§ 58–63 and 64(1)(c) Landes-Volksabstimmungsgesetz [Referendum Act], LGBl 60/1987.

  83. 83.

    Constitutional Court 6/10/2020, G 166/2020 ua; Bußjäger (2021).

  84. 84.

    Cf. Gamper (2011, 2014) and Madlsperger (2014).

  85. 85.

    Art. 116(1) B-VG.

  86. 86.

    Art. 118(1) B-VG.

  87. 87.

    For two exceptions see below at Sect. 3.2.1. Cf. also Gamper (2008), p. 77.

  88. 88.

    Art. 10–15 B-VG.

  89. 89.

    Art. 118(2) B-VG.

  90. 90.

    Cf. VfSlg 6944/1972 and 8719/1979; Eller (2020), p. 88; for municipal access to the Constitutional Court in general see below at Sect. 3.2.2.

  91. 91.

    Cf. Gamper (2008), p. 77; Pernthaler (2004), p. 216; Stolzlechner (2013c), paras 1–3 and 5–8; Weber (1999), paras 1–7.

  92. 92.

    Art. 118(2) B-VG. With an abstract municipality (see above at Sect. 1.2.3) as a reference. Cf. Eller (2020), para 40.

  93. 93.

    Art. 118(3) B-VG.

  94. 94.

    Art. 118(2) in conjunction with Art. 116(2) B-VG. For the financial area see below at Sect. 7.

  95. 95.

    Eller (2020), p. 153.

  96. 96.

    Cf. Stolzlechner (2013d), para 1; Binder (2002), pp. 115–119.

  97. 97.

    Cf. Eller (2020), pp. 108–120; Sündhofer (2017); Wielinger (1974).

  98. 98.

    Cf. Gamper (2012), p. 31.

  99. 99.

    Art. 118(4) B-VG. Cf., e.g., Stolzlechner (2013d), paras 21–25. For supervision see below at Sect. 5.2.2.

  100. 100.

    Cf. Art. 140(1)(2) and (1)(3) B-VG for laws, and Art. 139(1)(5) and (1)(6) B-VG for regulations; Eller (2020), p. 161.

  101. 101.

    Art. 140(1)(1)(c) and 139(1)(3) B-VG.

  102. 102.

    Art. 140(1)(1)(d) and 139(1)(4) B-VG. Introduced only recently with BGBl I 114/2013.

  103. 103.

    Art. 144 B-VG. Cf. VfSlg 10.299/1984.

  104. 104.

    Cf., e.g., VfSlg 7459/1974 and 11.633/1988; Stolzlechner (2013c), para 8; Eller (2020), pp. 103–104 and 160–161.

  105. 105.

    Art. 119a(9) B-VG; cf. the case-law in fn no. 104; Hartlieb (2009), pp. 189–190.

  106. 106.

    Cf. Art. 139(1)(7) in conjunction with Art. 119a(6) B-VG. For supervision see below at Sect. 5.2.2.

  107. 107.

    See below at Sect. 5.1.

  108. 108.

    See below at Sect. 6.1.

  109. 109.

    Art. 137 B-VG and Art. 3 of the Federal Constitutional Act on Authorisations of the Austrian Association of Municipalities and the Austrian Association of Towns, BGBl I 61/1998; cf. also Art. 138a(1) B-VG and Art. 2(2) of the mentioned Federal Constitutional Act; Eller (2020), p. 160.

  110. 110.

    Cf. Gamper (2008), p. 80.

  111. 111.

    Cf. Gamper (2008), p. 80.

  112. 112.

    Cf. Stolzlechner (2020), para 15.

  113. 113.

    Art. 119(1) B-VG.

  114. 114.

    The mayor may sub-delegate certain matters to members of the municipal board or to other institutions, who are then bound by his or her instructions. Cf. Art. 119(2) and (3) B-VG. See also Art. 20(1) B-VG.

  115. 115.

    Art. 119(4) B-VG. The forfeiture is declared by the Land governor in the area of federal administration and by the Land government in the area of Land administration.

  116. 116.

    Art. 116(1) B-VG.

  117. 117.

    Cf., e.g., VfSlg 6697/1972 (‘ungestörte Existenz’) and the case-law cited in Stolzlechner (2020), para 8 (fn no. 37–39).

  118. 118.

    For obvious reasons: see above at Sect. 2.1.1.

  119. 119.

    § 4 of the 1962 Act: ‘The existing towns with their own statutes shall continue to exist as such.’ This applies to all 15 towns except Wels. Cf., e.g., Stolzlechner (2020), paras 6, 52, and 55 (mentioning also contrary doctrinal opinions in fn no. 28 and 354); Holoubek et al. (2013), p. 128.

  120. 120.

    Art. 120 B-VG (see above at Sect. 1.1.3); cf. Stolzlechner (2020), para 6; Holoubek et al. (2013), p. 127.

  121. 121.

    Cf. Bauer and Steineder (2012), pp. 54–56; Bertel (2015), pp. 23–25; below at fn no. 135.

  122. 122.

    § 8(5)(d) ÜG 1920, first amended with BGBl I 77/2014 and then repealed with BGBl I 14/2019.

  123. 123.

    Cf. Stolzlechner (2020), para 7.

  124. 124.

    Cf. Holoubek et al. (2013), p. 126; Stolzlechner (2020), paras 7–9. For this competence in general see above at Sect. 1.2.2.

  125. 125.

    Municipal demarcation is not regulated in the Land constitutions of Salzburg, Upper Austria, Styria, Burgenland (where, however, the Municipal Act is a constitutional law), and, of course, Vienna (where rules for changes of district boundaries exist: § 4 WStV).

  126. 126.

    Cf., e.g., §(2) Bgld. GemO 2003; § 6(1) GemO; §§ 7–10 Oö. Gemeindeordnung 1990 (Oö. GemO 1990) [Municipal Act of Upper Austria], LGBl 91/1990; slightly simpler in § 6(1) NÖ GO 1973.

  127. 127.

    Cf., e.g., § 4(1) TGO; § 7(1) Kärntner Allgemeine Gemeindeordnung (K-AGO) [Municipal Act of Carinthia], LGBl 66/1998; §§ 7–9 Bgld. GemO 2003; §§ 7–10 Oö. GemO 1990 (two-thirds majority); §§ 8(1) and 9(1) NÖ GO 1973 (three-quarters majority for unifications and a complex procedure up to binding referenda for separations). But see §§ 9–10 GemO (consultations followed by a law).

  128. 128.

    Cf. the NÖ GO 1973 provisions repealed in 2009 with LGBl 1000-14; Art. 57(3) NÖ Landesverfassung 1979 (NÖ LV 1979) [Land Constitution of Lower Austria], LGBl 0001-0.

  129. 129.

    Cf., e.g., Art. 72(2) Tiroler Landesordnung 1989 [Land Constitution of Tyrol], LGBl 61/1988, and §§ 4(3), 5, and 6 TGO; § 4(2) GdO 2019; §§ 7–10 Oö. GemO 1990.

  130. 130.

    § 7(1) Gemeindegesetz. See also §§ 9–10 GemO.

  131. 131.

    Art. 3(2) and (3) Kärntner Landesverfassung (K-LVG) [Land Constitution of Carinthia], LGBl 85/1996.

  132. 132.

    § 12(5) Oö. GemO 1990 (constitutional provision).

  133. 133.

    § 6(2) GemO (with a definition); § 6(1) Oö. GemO 1990; § 6(2) NÖ GO 1973; § 6(3) Bgld. GemO 2003; § 7(2) TGO; slightly different §§ 8 and 8a K-AGO.

  134. 134.

    Cf. Schwetz (2019), p. 60; http://burgenland.at/verwaltung/land-burgenland/bezirke-gemeinden; for the reform in Styria see Storr (2016), pp. 143–149.

  135. 135.

    Cf. Stolzlechner and Müller (2015), pp. 152–165; Schlögl (2015).

  136. 136.

    Schwetz (2019), p. 61.

  137. 137.

    Cf. http://gemeindebund.at/ueber-uns-ueber-den-gemeindebund and http://staedtebund.gv.at/organisation.

  138. 138.

    Cf. Kiefer and Schausberger (2009), p. 57. See also above at fn no. 37 for their influence on the important 1962 reform. Eberhard (2013), p. 19, speaks of ‘an enormous role’ in ‘constitutional practice’.

  139. 139.

    Art. 115(3) B-VG, as amended by BGBl 685/1988.

  140. 140.

    Cf. Stolzlechner (2013a), para 20.

  141. 141.

    Art. 23d(1) B-VG.

  142. 142.

    Art. 23c(4) B-VG. Since each Land may present one member and Austria is currently entitled to 12 members under Art. 1(1) Council Decision (EU) 2019/852, OJ L 139, 27/5/2019, 13.

  143. 143.

    Art. 59b(1) B-VG.

  144. 144.

    Federal Constitutional Act BGBl I 61/1998. See in detail below at Sect. 7.

  145. 145.

    Art. 53 Landes-Verfassungsgesetz 1999 (L-VG) [Land Constitution of Salzburg], LGBl 25/1999, and Art. 65(4) Oö. Landes-Verfassungsgesetz (Oö. L-VG) [Land Constitution of Upper Austria], LGBl 122/1991 (provisions similar to Art. 115(3) B-VG); Art. 24a(3) K-LVG (provision similar to Art. 59b(1) B-VG); Art. 22(4a) Landes-Verfassungsgesetz 2010 (L-VG) [Land Constitution of Styria], LGBl 77/2010, § 107 Bgld. GemO 2003, and Art. 78 Verfassungsgesetz über die Verfassung des Landes Vorarlberg [Land Constitution of Vorarlberg], LGBl 9/1999 (consultation before adopting certain acts); Art. 36(2)(a) Tiroler Landesordnung 1989 and Art. 25(1)(3) in conjunction with Art. 60 NÖ LV 1979 (review of draft legislation).

  146. 146.

    Cf. in detail Eller (2020), pp. 58 and 124–151.

  147. 147.

    For the judiciary, see above at Sect. 3.2.2 and further Eller (2020), pp. 158–179.

  148. 148.

    See above at Sect. 3.

  149. 149.

    See Art. 115(2), 118(1) and (4), 118a(1), 119(1) and (2), and 119a(3) B-VG.

  150. 150.

    Cf. also Gamper (2006), pp. 79–81.

  151. 151.

    Due to their competence for municipal organisation: see above at Sects. 1.2.2 and 2.2.2. Cf. Stolzlechner (2013a), paras 14–16.

  152. 152.

    Cf., e.g., Art. 119(4) and 119a(3) and (7) B-VG; in general Art. 102 B-VG and above at Sect. 1.1.2.

  153. 153.

    Art. 119a(1) B-VG.

  154. 154.

    Cf. Art. 10, 14(1) and (5), 14a(2), and 14b(2)(1) B-VG; Kahl (2015), para 14.

  155. 155.

    Art. 119a(3) B-VG.

  156. 156.

    § 3(1) Bundes-Gemeindeaufsichtsgesetz, BGBl 123/1967.

  157. 157.

    Art. 119a(7) B-VG. In Länder matters, it is the responsibility of the Land government. For other means of supervision see Art. 119a(4), (6), (7), and (8) B-VG.

  158. 158.

    Art. 119a(2) B-VG. See also Art. 121, 122, and 127a B-VG on financial control of the Court of Auditors, which acts as an institution of the Land Parliaments when controlling municipalities (Art. 122(1) B-VG).

  159. 159.

    Art. 15(2) B-VG.

  160. 160.

    Art. 22 B-VG. Cf. also Art. 53(3) and 148b(1) B-VG in relation to committees of inquiry and the Ombudsman Board respectively.

  161. 161.

    Art. 21(4) B-VG; cf. recently Bußjäger and Eller (2020), especially 327–328 and 330.

  162. 162.

    Cf. Bußjäger (2000b), pp. 12–16; Stolzlechner (2013d), paras 36–40.

  163. 163.

    See above at Sect. 1.1.3.

  164. 164.

    Bußjäger (2019), p. 43, speaks of an estimated 2500 municipal associations, the strongest form of cooperation.

  165. 165.

    Cf. Stolzlechner (2013b), para 1; Wirth (2012), pp. 51–54.

  166. 166.

    Cf. Stolzlechner (2013b), para 13.

  167. 167.

    See Art. 116a(1) B-VG, also for the approval criteria.

  168. 168.

    Art. 116a(2) B-VG.

  169. 169.

    Cf., e.g., Stolzlechner (2013b), paras 3–4.

  170. 170.

    Art. 116a(6) B-VG, as introduced by BGBl I 60/2011.

  171. 171.

    Art. 116a(4) B-VG.

  172. 172.

    Art. 116a(3) B-VG. Cf. Stolzlechner (2013b), paras 28–31.

  173. 173.

    Cf. Art. 116a(5) B-VG. Also supervision follows the general model (Art. 119a(10) B-VG).

  174. 174.

    Cf. Art. 116a(1) and (2) B-VG; Bußjäger (2012), pp. 100–101; Stolzlechner (2013b), paras 9, 15–19, and 25.

  175. 175.

    Stolzlechner (2013b), para 9.

  176. 176.

    Cf. Eberhard (2013), para 60.

  177. 177.

    Cf. Stolzlechner (2013b), para 7.

  178. 178.

    But see § 21(4) Bgld. GemO 2003 and § 14a(1) NÖ GO 1973.

  179. 179.

    Cf. Eberhard (2012), para 68.

  180. 180.

    Cf. Eberhard (2012), para 69.

  181. 181.

    Art. 116b B-VG, as introduced by BGBl I 60/2011.

  182. 182.

    Cf. Stolzlechner (2013c), especially paras 9–13 and 16–18.

  183. 183.

    See also the specific instrument of small regions (Kleinregionen) in § 38a GemO (Styria).

  184. 184.

    Regulation (EC) No 1082/2006, OJ L 210, 31/7/2006, 19.

  185. 185.

    Cf. Eisendle and Haller (2021), pp. 415 and 426.

  186. 186.

    Art. 15(10) B-VG, as amended by BGBl I 60/2011 and BGBl I 14/2019. See Bertel (2018).

  187. 187.

    Cf. Gamper (2008), pp. 86 and 88; Pernthaler and Gamper (2005), pp. 76 and 78.

  188. 188.

    BGBl 45/1948.

  189. 189.

    Cf. Art. 13(1) B-VG.

  190. 190.

    § 2 F-VG.

  191. 191.

    § 3 F-VG.

  192. 192.

    § 4 F-VG. Cf. Frank (2018), paras 5–6; Gamper (2008), p. 36.

  193. 193.

    § 6 F-VG.

  194. 194.

    § 7 F-VG.

  195. 195.

    § 8 F-VG.

  196. 196.

    § 7(5) and § 8(5) F-VG respectively. Cf. Frank (2018), paras 16–20; Eberhard (2013), p. 19, emphasises the comparatively ‘little leeway’ of Austrian municipalities, as tax types, bases and most rates ‘are determined either by Land or by federal law’.

  197. 197.

    § 8(6) F-VG. Cf. Frank (2018), paras 21–24.

  198. 198.

    § 12(1) F-VG.

  199. 199.

    § 12(2) F-VG.

  200. 200.

    § 14 F-VG. Cf. also § 15 F-VG on federal loans.

  201. 201.

    Most recently, for the period 2017–2021, Finanzausgleichsgesetz 2017 (FAG 2017), BGBl I 116/2016.

  202. 202.

    Before 2017, last in 2008, 2005, and 2001.

  203. 203.

    Cf. Gamper (2012), p. 37.

  204. 204.

    See above at Sect. 5.1.

  205. 205.

    The pact on the FAG 2017 and its annexes are available at http://bmf.gv.at/themen/budget/finanzbeziehungen-laender-gemeinden/paktum-finanzausgleich-ab-2017.html.

  206. 206.

    Cf. Gamper (2012), p. 37, with references to case-law in fn no. 41.

  207. 207.

    See also Gamper (2008), p. 87 (‘the federation clearly dominates in the negotiations, more or less forcing the other parties to agree to a draft Fiscal Equalisation Act, although this may be detrimental to their interests’).

  208. 208.

    § 6 FAG.

  209. 209.

    Cf. §§ 10—especially (7) and (8)—and 12 FAG; Frank (2018), paras 86–96.

  210. 210.

    §§ 8–22 FAG.

  211. 211.

    §§ 23–27 FAG. These allocations and grants are not linked to special conditions except for reporting obligations; in principle, however, this is precisely the risk of a transfer-dependent financial system. Cf. Weber (2005), p. 428.

  212. 212.

    The most important municipal tax is the Kommunalsteuer an income-related tax (3% of the tax base) levied by municipalities but regulated by a federal law, the Kommunalsteuergesetz 1993, BGBl 819/1993.

  213. 213.

    There are only a few examples of shared Länder taxes. Cf. Frank (2018), para 84.

  214. 214.

    Cf. Mitterer et al. (2021), pp. 13–18.

  215. 215.

    Cf. Mitterer et al. (2021), pp. 6–7.

  216. 216.

    Cf. Mitterer et al. (2021), pp. 8–10.

  217. 217.

    Mitterer et al. (2021), p. 10.

  218. 218.

    Agreement between the Federation, the Länder, and the municipalities on a Consultation Mechanism and a future Stability Pact of the territorial entities, BGBl I 35/1999.

  219. 219.

    BGBl I 101/1999.

  220. 220.

    Agreement between the Federation, the Länder, and the municipalities on an Austrian Stability Pact 2012 (ÖStP 2012), BGBl I 30/2013.

  221. 221.

    BGBl I 61/1998. Cf. Weber (2000).

  222. 222.

    Art. 15a B-VG. But see above at Sect. 6.2 for agreements under Art. 116b B-VG.

  223. 223.

    See, e.g., Frank (2018), paras 119–121.

  224. 224.

    Cf. Bußjäger (2000a, b) and Hillisch (2016).

  225. 225.

    Cf. Weber (2005), p. 427; Eller (2020), pp. 144–146.

  226. 226.

    Cf., e.g., Pernthaler and Esterbauer (1980), p. 338, who describe Austria as an ‘extremely unitary federal state’.

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    Matthias Haller

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Haller, M. (2023). Local Governance in Austria: Diversity in Homogeneity. In: Nicolini, M., Valdesalici, A. (eds) Local Governance in Multi-Layered Systems. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 108. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41792-4_7

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