Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

How Officers Perform and Grow under Stress: Police Training in Virtual Reality

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Police Conflict Management, Volume II

  • 207 Accesses

Abstract

To prepare officers for conflict situations on duty, they need to acquire conflict management skills in such a way that they can also be called upon in high-stress situations. While the physical exercise of police-specific skills under simulated stress—known as training under stress—has already been shown to be effective in improving performance under stress, theoretical, empirical, and practical challenges remain in its implementation. In the present chapter, the authors propose the concept of hormesis to advance training under stress in police education. Hormesis assumes an inverted U-shaped relationship between stress and performance, with moderate stress levels eliciting maximal performance. Thus, such individualized stress–performance profiles might provide valuable insights as to how to create scenarios for an effective training under stress. However, leveraging this approach requires systematic and fine-graded adjustments of training scenarios, while being able to monitor officers’ stress levels and performance. Virtual reality (VR) offers the possibility of real-time tracking of stress levels and performance parameters in full and representative environments under high experimental control. Therefore, the authors critically discuss VR as a promising tool to implement training under stress and the hormetic framework in police training.

Reviewer: Peter Renden

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams, K., Kiefer, A. W., Panchuk, D., Hunter, A., MacPherson, R., & Spratford, W. (2020). From the field of play to the laboratory: Recreating the demands of competition with augmented reality simulated sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38, 486–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1706872

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arble, E., & Arnetz, B. B. (2021). Four fundamental principles to enhance police performance and community safety. In E. Arble, & B. Arnetz (Eds.), Interventions, training, and technologies for improved police well-being and performance (pp. 231–245). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-6820-0.ch015

  • Arble, E., Daugherty, A. M., & Arnetz, B. (2019). Differential effects of physiological arousal following acute stress on police officer performance in a simulated critical incident. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 759. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00759

  • Awada, M., Zhu, R., Becerik-Gerber, B., Lucas, G., & Southers, E. (2021). An integrated emotional and physiological assessment for VR-based active shooter incident experiments. Advanced Engineering Informatics, 47, 101227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aei.2020.101227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, S., Bennel, C., Andersen, J. P., Semple, T., & Jenkins, B. (2019). Stress-activity mapping: Physiological responses during general duty police encounters. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2216. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02216

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1984). Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 610–620. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.610

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bennell, C., Blaskovits, B., Jenkins, B., Semple, T., Khanizadeh, A.‐J., Brown, A. S., & Jones, N. J. (2021). Promising practices for de-escalation and use-of-force training in the police setting: A narrative review. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 44(3), 377–404. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2020-0092

  • Bertram, J., Moskaliuk, J., & Cress, U. (2015). Virtual training: Making reality work? Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 284–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.10.032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binsch, O., Oudejans, N., van der Kuil, M. N., Landman, A., Smeets, M. M., Leers, M. P., & Smit, A. S. (2022). The effect of virtual reality simulation on police officers’ performance and recovery from a real-life surveillance task. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 1–22.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-022-14110-5

  • Blascovich, J. (1992). A biopsychosocial approach to arousal regulation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11, 213–237. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1992.11.3.213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blascovich, J. (2013). The biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat: Reflections, theoretical ubiquity, and new directions. In B. Derks, D. Scheepers, & N. Ellemers (Eds.), Neuroscience of prejudice and inter-group relations (pp. 229–242). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203124635-20

  • Blumberg, D. M., Schlosser, M. D., Papazoglou, K., Creighton, S., & Kaye, C. C. (2019). New directions in police academy training: A call to action. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(24). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16244941

  • Brammer, J. C., van Peer, J. M., Michela, A., van Rooij, M. M. J. W., Oostenveld, R., Klumpers, F., Dorrestijn, W., Granic, I., & Roelofs, K. (2021). Breathing biofeedback for police officers in a stressful virtual environment: Challenges and opportunities. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586553. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586553

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brams, S., Ziv, G., Levin, O., Spitz, J., Wagemans, J., Williams, A. M., & Helsen, W. F. (2019). The relationship between gaze behavior, expertise, and performance: A systematic review. Psychological Bulletin, 145(10), 980–1027. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calabrese, E. J., & Mattson, M. P. (2011). Hormesis provides a generalized quantitative estimate of biological plasticity. Journal of Cell Communication and Signaling, 5, 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12079-011-0119-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caserman, P., Cornel, M., Dieter, M., & Göbel, S. (2018). A concept of a training environment for police using VR game technology. In S. Göbel, A. Garcia-Agundez, T. Tegel, M. Ma, J. Baalsrud Hauge, M. Oliveira, T. Marsh, & P. Chaserman (Eds.), Lecture notes in computer science: Joint international conference on serious games (pp. 175–181). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02762-9_18

  • Costantini, D., Metcalfe, N. B., & Monaghan, P. (2010). Ecological processes in a hormetic framework. Ecology Letters, 13, 1435–1447. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01531.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crum, A. J., Akinola, M., Martin, A., & Fath, S. (2017). The role of stress mindset in shaping cognitive, emotional, and physiological responses to challenging and threatening stress. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 30(4), 379–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2016.1275585

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, J. J., & Bailenson, J. N. (2016). How immersive is enough? A meta-analysis of the effect of immersive technology on user presence. Media Psychology, 19(2), 272–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1015740

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Di Nota, P. M., & Huhta, J.-M. (2019). Complex motor learning and police training: Applied, cognitive, and clinical perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1797. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01797

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Di Nota, P. M., Stoliker, B. E., Vaughan, A. D., Andersen, J. P., & Anderson, G. S. (2020). Stress and memory: A systematic state-of-the-art review with evidence-gathering recommendations for police. Policing: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2020-0093

  • Düking, P., Holmberg, C.-H., & Sperlich, B. (2018). The potential usefulness of virtual reality systems for athletes: A short SWOT analysis. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 128. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engelbrecht, H., Lindeman, R. W., & Hoermann, S. (2019). A SWOT analysis of the field of virtual reality for firefighter training. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 6, 101. https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2019.00101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epel, E. S., Crosswell, A. D., Mayer, S. E., Prather, A. A., Slavich, G. M., Puterman, E., & Mendes, W. B. (2018). More than a feeling: A unified view of stress measurement for population science. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 49, 146–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2018.03.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francis, A. L. (2018). The embodied theory of stress: A constructionist perspective on the experience of stress. Review of General Psychology, 22(4), 398–405. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frenkel, M. O.*, Giessing, L.*, Egger-Lampl, S., Hutter, V., Oudejans, R. R. D., Kleygrewe, L., Jaspaert, E., & Plessner, H. (2021). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on European police officers: Stress, demands, and coping resource. Journal of Criminal Justice, 72, 101756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101756. *These authors contributed equally to this work.

  • Frenkel, M. O., Giessing, L., Jaspaert, E., & Staller, M. (2021). Mapping demands: How to prepare police officers to cope with pandemic-specific stressors. European Law Enforcement Research Bulletin, 21, 11–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frenkel, M. O., Uhlenbrock, F. (2023). Stress im Polizeiberuf und seine Auswirkungen auf Verhalten und Gesundheit. In S. Staller, M., Zaiser, B., Koerner, S. (Eds.), Handbuch Polizeipsychologie. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40118-4_15

  • Giessing, L. (2021). The potential of virtual reality for police training under Stress: A SWOT analysis. In: E. A. Arble & B. B. Arnetz (Eds.), Interventions, training, and technologies for improved police well-being and performance (pp. 102–124). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-6820-0.ch006

  • Giessing, L., Frenkel, M. O., Zinner, C., Rummel, J., Nieuwenhuys, A., Kasperk, C., Brune, M., Engel, F. A., & Plessner, H. (2019). Effects of coping-related traits and psychophysiological stress responses on police recruits’ shooting behavior in reality- based scenarios. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1523. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giessing, L., Oudejans, R. R. D., Hutter, V., Plessner, H., Strahler, J., & Frenkel, M. O. (2020). Acute and chronic stress in daily police service: A three-week N-of-1 study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 122, 104865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104865

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giessing, L., & Frenkel, M. O. (2022). Übung oder Ernst? Von Stressinduktion im Polizeitraining zu Stressbewältigung im Einsatz [Practice or seriousness? From stress induction in police training to stress management in the field]. In M. S. Staller & S. Körner (Eds.), Handbuch polizeiliches Einsatztraining (pp. 653–676). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-34158-9_35

  • Gordon, J., Maselli, A., Lancia, G. L., Thiery, T., Cisek, P., & Pezzulo, G. (2021). The road towards understanding embodied decisions. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Review, 131, 722–736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goyer, J. P., Akinola, M., Grunberg, R., & Crum, A. J. (2021). Thriving under pressure: The effects of stress- related wise interventions on affect, sleep, and exam performance for college students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Emotion. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001026

  • Groer, M., Murphy, R., Bunnell, W., Salomon, K., van Eepoel, J., Rankin, B., White, K., & Bykowski, C. (2010). Salivary measures of stress and immunity in police officers engaged in simulated critical incident scenarios. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 52(6), 595–602. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181e129da

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, L. (1990). A catastrophe model of anxiety and performance. In J. G. Jones & L. Hardy (Eds.), Stress and performance in sport (pp. 81–106). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1991.tb02391.x

  • Harris, D. J., Hardcastle, K. J., Wilson, M. R., & Vine, S. J. (2021). Assessing the learning and transfer of gaze behaviours in immersive virtual reality. Virtual Reality, 25, 961–973. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-021-00501-w

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haskins, J., Zhu, B., Gainer, S., Huse, W., Eadara, S., Boyd, B., Laird, C., Farantatos, J. J., & Jerald, J. (2020, March 22–26). Exploring VR training for first responders [Paper Presentation]. IEEE Virtual Reality Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hermans, E. J., Henckens, M. J. A. G., Joëls, M., & Fernández, G. (2014). Dynamic adaptation of large-scale brain networks in response to acute stressors. Trends in Neurosciences, 37(6), 304–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2014.03.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heusler, B., & Sutter, C. (2020). Gaze control and training for high-stress situations in law enforcement: A systematic review. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 35(4), 401–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-019-09338-1

  • Hill, Y., Kiefer, A. W., Silva, P. L., Van Yperen, N. W., Meijer, R. R., Fischer, N., & Den Hartigh, R. (2020). Antifragility in climbing: Determining optimal stress loads for athletic performance training. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 272. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann, S., Borges, U., Bröker, L., Laborde, S., Liepelt, R., Lobinger, B. H., Löffler, J., Musculus, L., & Raab, M. (2018). The psychophysiology of action: A multidisciplinary endeavor for integrating action and cognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1423. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01423

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hope, L. (2016). Evaluating the effects of stress and fatigue on police officer response and recall: A challenge for research, training, practice and policy. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5(3), 239–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, B., Semple, T., & Bennell, C. (2021). An evidence-based approach to critical incident scenario development. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 44(3), 437–454. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-02-2020-0017

  • Kiefer, A. W., Silva, P. L., Harrison, H. S., & Araújo, D. (2018). Antifragility in sport: Leveraging adversity to enhance performance. Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology, 7, 342–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleygrewe, L., Hutter, V., Koedijk, M., & Oudejans, R. (2023). Virtual reality training for police officers: A comparison of training responses in VR and real-life training. Police Practice and Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2023.2176307

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Low, W. R., Sandercock, G. R. H., Freeman, P., Winter, M. E., Butt, J., & Maynard, I. (2021). Pressure training for performance domains: A meta-analysis. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 10(1), 149–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masters, R., & Maxwell, J. (2008). The theory of reinvestment. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(2), 160–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840802287218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B.S. (2007). Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain. Physiological Reviews, 87(3), 873–904. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00041.2006

  • Muñoz, J. E., Quintero, L., Stephens, C. L., & Pope, A. T. (2020). A psychophysiological model of firearms training in police officers: A virtual reality experiment for biocybernetic adaptation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 683. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00683

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murtinger, M., Jaspaert, E., Schrom-Feiertag, H., & Egger-Lampl, S. (2021). CBRNe training in virtual environments: SWOT analysis & practical guidelines. International Journal of Safety and Security Engineering, 11(4), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsse.110402

  • Nguyen, Q., Jaspaert, E., Murtinger, M., Schrom-Feiertag, H., Egger-Lampl, S., & Tscheligi, M. (2021). Stress out: Translating real-world stressors into audio-visual stress cues in VR for police training. In C. Ardito, R. Lanzilotti, A. Malizia, H. Petrie, A. Piccinno, G. Desolda, & K. Inkpen (Eds.), Human-computer interaction – INTERACT 2021. Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 12933). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85616-8_32

  • Nieuwenhuys, A., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2010). Effects of anxiety on handgun shooting behavior of police officers: A pilot study. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 23(2), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800902977494

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwenhuys, A., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2011). Training with anxiety: Short- and long-term effects on police officers’ shooting behavior under pressure. Cognitive Processing, 12(3), 277–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-011-0396-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwenhuys, A., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2017). Anxiety and performance: Perceptual-motor behavior in high-pressure contexts. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwenhuys, A., Cañal-Bruland, R., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2012). Effects of threat on police officers’ shooting behavior: Anxiety, action specificity, and affective influences on perception. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(4), 608–615. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2838

  • Nieuwenhuys, A., Savelsbergh, G. J. P., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2012). Shoot or don’t shoot? Why police officers are more inclined to shoot when they are anxious. Emotion, 12(4), 827–833. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025699

  • Nieuwenhuys, A., Weber, J., van der Hoeve, R., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2017). Sitting duck or scaredy cat? Effects of shot execution strategy on anxiety and police officers’ shooting performance under high threat. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 22(2), 274–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12099

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oudejans, R. R. D. (2008). Reality-based practice under pressure improves handgun shooting performance of police officers. Ergonomics, 51(3), 261–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130701577435

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papazoglou, K., Blumberg, D. M., & Schlosser, M. (2020). A brief discussion of effective ways to teach potentially life-saving psychology. Salus Journal, 8(1), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.3316/informit.053607076936293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinder, R. A., Davids, K., Renshaw, I., & Araújo, D. (2011). Representative learning design and functionality of research and practice in sport. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33(1), 146–155. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.1.146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raab, M. (2017). Motor heuristics and embodied choices: How to choose and act. Current Opininion in Psychology, 16, 34–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.029

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renden, P. G., Landman, A., Daalder, N. R., de Cock, H. P., Savelsbergh, G. J. P., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2017). Effects of threat, trait anxiety and state anxiety on police officers’ actions during an arrest. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 22(1), 116–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12077

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renden, P. G., Landman, A., Geerts, S. F., Jansen, S. E. M., Faber, G. S., Savelsbergh, G. J. P., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2014). Effects of anxiety on the execution of police arrest and self-defense skills. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 27(1), 100–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renden, P. G., Nieuwenhuys, A., Savelsbergh, G. J. P., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2015). Dutch police officers’ preparation and performance of their arrest and self-defence skills: A questionnaire study. Applied Ergonomics, 49, 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2015.01.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roelofs, K., & Dayan, P. (2022). Freezing revisited: Coordinated autonomic and central optimization of threat coping. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-022-00608-2

  • Saunders, J., Davey, S., Bayerl, P. S., & Lohrmann, P. (2019). Validating virtual reality as an effective training medium in the security domain. 2019 IEEE conference on virtual reality and 3D user interfaces (VR).

    Google Scholar 

  • SHOTPROS. (2021). European VR training provider. Companies for Virtual Reality Training solutions in the law enforcement domain. https://shotpros.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/SHOTPROS_Book-let_VR-Provider_V1.pdf

  • Staller, M. S., Körner, S., Heil, V., Abraham, A., & Poolton, J. M. (2021). Police recruits’ perception of skill transfer from training to the field. ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16219.90404

  • Staller, M. S., Körner, S., Heil, V., Klemmer, I., Abraham, A., & Poolton, J. M. (2021). The structure and delivery of police use of force training: A German case study. European Journal for Security Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41125-021-00073-5

  • Staller, M. S., & Zaiser, B. (2015). Developing problem solvers: New perspectives on pedagogical practices in police use of force training. The Journal of Law Enforcement, 4(3), 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, J., Strafford, B. W., North, J., Toner, C., & Davids, K. (2019). Effectiveness and efficiency of virtual reality designs to enhance athlete development: An ecological dynamics perspective. Movement & Sport Sciences - Science and Motricité, 102, 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1051/sm/2018031

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taverniers, J., & De Boeck, P. (2014). Force-on-force handgun practice: An intra-individual exploration of stress effects, biomarker regulation, and behavioral changes. Human Factors, 56, 403–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.09.016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M., Fekedulegn, D., Hartley, T. A., Charles, L. E., Andrew, M. E., Ma, C. C., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2016). Highly rated and most frequent stressors among police officers: Gender differences. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(4), 645–662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-016-9342-x

  • Voigt, L., Friedrich, J., Grove, P., Heinrich, N., Ittlinger, S., Iskra, M., Koop, L., Michirev, A., Sparascio, S., & Raab, M. (2023). Advancing judgment and decision-making research in sport psychology by using the body as an informant in embodied choices. Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsep.2022.09.006

  • Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2008). Virtual reality with fMRI: A breakthrough cognitive treatment tool. Virtual Reality, 12(4), 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-008-0100-3

  • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 626–636. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03196322

  • Wilson, A. D., & Golonka, S. (2013). Embodied cognition is not what you think it is. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 58. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00058

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18(5), 459–482. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.920180503

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Performance Psychology, Institute of Psychology, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany

    Laura Voigt

  2. Institute for Sport and Sport Science, Faculty of Behavioral and Empirical Cultural Studies, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany

    Marie Ottilie Frenkel

Authors
  1. Laura Voigt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marie Ottilie Frenkel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laura Voigt .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Applied Sciences for Police and Public Administration North Rhine-Westphalia, Cologne, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany

    Mario S. Staller

  2. German Sport University, Cologne, Germany

    Swen Koerner

  3. Aurora, ON, Canada

    Benni Zaiser

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Voigt, L., Frenkel, M.O. (2023). How Officers Perform and Grow under Stress: Police Training in Virtual Reality. In: Staller, M.S., Koerner, S., Zaiser, B. (eds) Police Conflict Management, Volume II. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41100-7_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation