Abstract
The Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model’s authentic content and iterative research documented in early writings has become “lost scrolls” of the past. This chapter revitalizes foundational theoretical explanations from the lost scrolls and provides an abbreviated timeline of seminal studies in the 1970s and 1980s that led to the creation of RNR. The methodological rigor, theoretical support, and practical considerations that built each RNR principle are explored. Throughout this chapter, the pioneers’ words from the lost scrolls are resurrected through quotes from Andrews and colleagues to illustrate foundation concepts, such as “Statements to the effect that acquisition, maintenance, and modification of criminal and noncriminal behavior are governed by similar principles does not constitute a theory of criminal behavior. They are statements concerning a general theory of behavior” [emphasis added] (Andrews DA, Am Sociol Rev 45:448–462, p. 450, 1980). Further, this chapter explores how social learning theory is at the heart of why targeting criminogenic needs during interventions is effective at reducing recidivism. Finally, this chapter discusses next steps in knowledge accumulation, such as the use of multidisciplinary implementation models. This chapter concludes by presenting lessons learned from the pioneers, such as noting the limitations of statistical significance and the importance of replication, transparent reporting, and building mutually beneficial partnerships.
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Notes
- 1.
Full list of articles and books reviewed available upon request.
- 2.
Andrews defined a volunteer as a noncriminal individual, which was based on the general assumption that “the probability of criminal behaviour is increased when one is “without friends” who are noncriminal and/or hold anticriminal behavioural expectations and/or model or directly reinforce noncriminal alternatives” (Andrews, 1979, p. 7). The volunteers were originally noncriminal residents in community groups.
- 3.
The early studies that built the foundation of RNR were abundant. Thus, for brevity, several methodologically rigorous representative studies will be discussed to provide an abbreviated timeline for how their scientific advances progressed across time.
- 4.
The six criminogenic needs applicable to all human behavior include: (a) personality pattern (e.g., impulsivity, sensation seeking), (b) cognitions (i.e., attitudes, beliefs, values, and rationalizations), (c) peer associates, (d) family and marital relationships, (e) performance and involvement in school and/or work, and (f) involvement and satisfaction in leisure activities (Bonta & Andrews, 2017).
- 5.
Although, it should be noted that even though many view justice-involved individuals with substance abuse problems as different from other justice involved individuals, substance abuse is not synonymous with criminal behavior as many law-abiding individuals engage in abusing substances and they are not committing any crimes (e.g., individuals who abuse alcohol). Thus, past research in the 1970s suggested that the personality characteristics of individuals with drug addictions are very similar to individuals who do not have drug addictions (e.g., Gendreau & Gendreau, 1973; Gendreau et al., 1977).
- 6.
For a thorough discussion of knowledge destruction and knowledge cumulation, please see Gendreau (2019) and Gendreau and Goggin (2022), which supply important information on the earliest promotion of the rehabilitation agenda in the U.S. and discussion of the work of recent critics who have promoted pure situationism and work towards discarding the utility of risk and the RNR model.
- 7.
Gendreau et al. (2001) provide program implementation guidelines (i.e., Correctional Program Assessment Inventory [CPAI]) that involve examination of organizational, program, and staff factors and the change agent.
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Acknowledgments
The author would like to express her gratitude to Dr. Stephen Wormith for his assistance in determining the roots of RNR theoretical foundation and Dr. James Bonta for reading over the chapter prior to publication to double-check the accuracy of the information presented. The author also wishes to thank Dr. Caleb Lloyd for encouraging her to write a manuscript regarding the history of RNR. Finally, a special thank you is in order for the contributions that Dr. Paul Gendreau made in helping the author gather information from the lost scrolls (e.g., honors theses, presentations) and providing information on the pioneers’ backgrounds. He spent an incredible amount of time finding, and talking with me about, old articles and chapters that were important in constructing the evolution of RNR. Paul insisted he merited only an acknowledgment in this section. However, it should be noted that his assistance with reconstructing the roots of RNR since 2016 would technically warrant authorship as his historical search on various personalities involved and the “lost scrolls” of RNR went beyond the call of duty to merit only an acknowledgment.
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Balzarini, T.K. (2023). Revitalizing the Lost Scrolls of Correctional Bible: Before the Risk-Need-Responsivity Model. In: Magaletta, P.R., Ternes, M., Patry, M. (eds) The History and Future of Correctional Psychology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37480-7_8
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