Abstract
Globally, explosive chemicals are widely used in different civil and military operations. During the production, transport, weapon testing, and mining activities, explosives reach to the environment and contaminate it. The problem of explosive contamination in urban environment has been reported in Asia, Sweden, the United States, Germany, and Australia. They readily bind with different components of humus and persist for long periods in soil due to their recalcitrant nature. Explosives are recalcitrant as they are not easily biodegraded by microorganisms in soil and water. Keeping in view their toxicity concerns to living organisms, it is exigent to remove these pollutants from the contaminated environment. The existing physical and chemical methods of removal of explosives from the contaminated environment are costly and not eco-incentive. Also, these methods can be only used under ex situ conditions. For the cleanup of the environment contaminated with harmful substances, such as explosives, phytoremediation is a very successful, well-proven bioremediation technology. In the light of the aforementioned context, present chapter critically assesses the sources of explosives in urban soils, environmental concerns, transport, and various explosive removal techniques in general and phytoremediation. Also, it discusses the mechanism and limitations of phytoremediation of explosives. Finally, it underlines the future prospects of phytoremediation as a prominent, sustainable, eco-incentive technology of removal of explosives from urban soils.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aamir Khan M, Sharma A, Yadav S, Celin SM, Sharma S (2022) A sketch of microbiological remediation of explosives-contaminated soil focused on state of art and the impact of technological advancement on hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) degradation. Chemosphere 294:133641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133641
Abhilash PC, Jamil S, Singh N (2009) Transgenic plants for enhanced biodegradation and phytoremediation of organic xenobiotics. Biotechnol Adv 27(4):474–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2009.04.002
Adamia G, Ghoghoberidze M, Graves D, Khatisashvili G, Kvesitadze G, Lomidze E, Ugrekhelidze D, Zaalishvili G (2006) Absorption, distribution, and transformation of TNT in higher plants. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 64(2):136–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2005.05.001
Ali A, Zinnert JC, Muthukumar B, Peng Y, Chung S-M, Neal Stewart C (2014) Physiological and transcriptional responses of Baccharis halimifolia to the explosive ‘composition B’ (RDX/TNT) in amended soil. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21(13):8261–8270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2764-4
Alkorta I, Garbisu C (2001) Phytoremediation of organic contaminants in soils. Degrad Bioresour Technol 79(3):273–276
ATSDR (1996) RDX fact sheet. [Online]. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts78.html. Accessed 1 Nov 2000
Burken JG, Shanks JV, Thompson PL (2000) Phytoremediation and plant metabolism of explosives and nitroaromatic compounds. In: Spain JC, Hughes JB, Knackmuss H-J (eds) Biodegradation of nitroaromatic compounds and explosives. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pp 239–276
Cabrera MÁ, Márquez SL, Quezada CP, Osorio MI, Castro-Nallar E, González-Nilo FD, Pérez-Donoso JM (2020) Biotransformation of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene by Pseudomonas Sp. TNT3 isolated from Deception Island, Antarctica. Environ Pollut 262(July):113922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.113922
Celin SM, Sahai S, Kalsi A, Bhanot P (2020) Environmental monitoring approaches used during bioremediation of soils contaminated with hazardous explosive chemicals. Trends Environ Anal Chem 26(June):e00088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teac.2020.e00088
Chang Y-Y, Kwon Y-S, Kim S-Y, Lee I-S, Bae B (2004) Enhanced degradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in a soil column planted with Indian mallow (Abutilon avicennae). J Biosci Bioeng 97(2):99–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-1723(04)70175-9
Charles P, Adams A, Deschamps J, Veitch S, Hanson A, Kusterbeck A (2014) Detection of explosives in a dynamic marine environment using a moored TNT immunosensor. Sensors 14(3):4074–4085. https://doi.org/10.3390/s140304074
Chatterjee S, Mitra A, Datta S, Veer V (2013) Phytoremediation protocols: an overview. In: Gupta DK (ed) Plant-based remediation processes, vol 35. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-35564-6_1
Chatterjee S, Deb U, Datta S, Walther C, Gupta DK (2017) Common explosives (TNT, RDX, HMX) and their fate in the environment: emphasizing bioremediation. Chemosphere 184(October):438–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.06.008
Chen D, Lewis Liu Z, Banwart W (2011) Concentration-dependent RDX uptake and remediation by crop plants. Environ Sci Pollut Res 18(6):908–917. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-011-0449-9
Clark B, Boopathy R (2007) Evaluation of bioremediation methods for the treatment of soil contaminated with explosives in Louisiana Army Ammunition Plant, Minden, Louisiana. J Hazard Mater 143(3):643–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.01.034
Das P, Datta R, Makris KC, Sarkar D (2010) Vetiver grass is capable of removing TNT from soil in the presence of urea. Environ Pollut 158(5):1980–1983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2009.12.011
Das P, Sarkar D, Makris KC, Punamiya P, Datta R (2013) Effectiveness of urea in enhancing the extractability of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene from chemically variant soils. Chemosphere 93(9):1811–1817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.028
Doty SL (2008) Enhancing phytoremediation through the use of transgenics and endophytes. New Phytol 179(2):318–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02446.x
Douglas TA, Walsh ME, Weiss CA, McGrath CJ, Trainor TP (2012) Desorption and transformation of nitroaromatic (TNT) and nitramine (RDX and HMX) explosive residues on detonated pure mineral phases. Water Air Soil Pollut 223(5):2189–2200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-011-1015-2
Eapen S, Singh S, D’Souza SF (2007) Advances in development of transgenic plants for remediation of xenobiotic pollutants. Biotechnol Adv 25(5):442–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.05.001
Eisentraeger A, Reifferscheid G, Dardenne F, Blust R, Schofer A (2007) Hazard characterization and identification of a former ammunition SITE using microarrays, bioassays, and chemical analysis. Environ Toxicol Chem 26(4):634. https://doi.org/10.1897/06-285R.1
George I, Eyers L, Stenuit B, Agathos SN (2008) Effect of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene on soil bacterial communities. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 35(4):225–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-007-0289-2
Gledhill M, Beck AJ, Stamer B, Schlosser C, Achterberg EP (2019) Quantification of munition compounds in the marine environment by solid phase extraction – ultra high performance liquid chromatography with detection by electrospray ionisation – mass spectrometry. Talanta 200(August):366–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2019.03.050
Groom CA, Halasz A, Paquet L, Morris N, Olivier L, Dubois C, Hawari J (2002) Accumulation of HMX (Octahydro-1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5,7-Tetrazocine) in indigenous and agricultural plants grown in HMX contaminated anti-tank firing-range soil. Environ Sci Technol 36(1):112–118. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0110729
Gupta DK, Chatterjee S, Datta S, Veer V, Walther C (2014) Role of phosphate fertilizers in heavy metal uptake and detoxification of toxic metals. Chemosphere 108(August):134–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.01.030
Gupta DK, Chatterjee S, Datta S, Voronina AV, Walther C (2016) Radionuclides: accumulation and transport in plants. In: de Voogt P (ed) Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology, vol 241. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2016_7
Hannink N, Rosser SJ, French CE, Basran A, Murray JAH, Nicklin S, Bruce NC (2001) Phytodetoxification of TNT by transgenic plants expressing a bacterial nitroreductase. Nat Biotechnol 19:1168–1172. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt1201-1168
Hannink NK, Rosser SJ, Bruce NC (2002) Phytoremediation of explosives. Crit Rev Plant Sci 21(5):511–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735-260291044340
Hannink NK, Subramanian M, Rosser SJ, Basran A, Murray JAH, Shanks JV, Bruce NC (2007) Enhanced transformation of TNT by tobacco plants expressing a bacterial nitroreductase. Int J Phytoremediation 9(5):385–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226510701603916
Hawari J, Beaudet S, Halasz A, Thiboutot S, Ampleman G (2000) Microbial degradation of explosives: biotransformation versus mineralization. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 54(5):605–618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002530000445
Hoehamer CF, Lee Wolfe N, Karl EL, Eriksson. (2006) Differences in the biotransformation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) between wild and axenically grown isolates of Myriophyllum aquaticum. Int J Phytoremediation 8(2):107–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226510600678431
Hughes JB, Shanks J, Vanderford M, Lauritzen J, Bhadra R (1997) Transformation of TNT by aquatic plants and plant tissue cultures. Environ Sci Technol 31(1):266–271. https://doi.org/10.1021/es960409h
Jackson RG, Rylott EL, Fournier D, Hawari J, Bruce NC (2007) Exploring the biochemical properties and remediation applications of the unusual explosive-degrading P450 system XplA/B. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:16822–16827. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0705110104
Jiamjitrpanich W, Polprasert C, Parkpian P, Delaune RD, Jugsujinda A (2010) Environmental factors influencing remediation of TNT-contaminated water and soil with nanoscale zero-valent iron particles. J Environ Sci Health A: Toxic/Hazard Subst Environ Eng 45(3):263–274
Jugnia L-B, Manno D, Dodard S, Greer CW, Hendry M (2019) Manipulating redox conditions to enhance in situ bioremediation of RDX in groundwater at a contaminated site. Sci Total Environ 676(August):368–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.045
Just CL, Schnoor JL (2004) Phytophotolysis of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) in leaves of reed canary. Environ Sci Technol 38:290–295. https://doi.org/10.1021/es034744z
Kafle A, Timilsina A, Gautam A, Adhikari K, Bhattarai A, Aryal N (2022) Phytoremediation: mechanisms, plant selection and enhancement by natural and synthetic agents. Environ Adv 8:100203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2022.100203
Kalderis D, Juhasz AL, Boopathy R, Comfort S (2011) Soils contaminated with explosives: environmental fate and evaluation of state-of-the-art remediation processes (IUPAC technical report). Pure Appl Chem 83(7):1407–1484. https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-REP-10-01-05
Kao C-M, Lin B-H, Chen S-C, Wei S-F, Chen C-C, Yao C-L, Chien C-C (2016) Biodegradation of trinitrotoluene (TNT) by indigenous microorganisms from TNT-contaminated soil, and their application in TNT bioremediation. Biorem J 20(3):165–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/10889868.2016.1148007
Kiiskila JD, Das P, Sarkar D, Datta R (2015) Phytoremediation of explosive-contaminated soils. Curr Pollut Rep 1(1):23–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-015-0003-3
Kuperman RG, Checkai RT, Simini M, Phillips CT, Kolakowski JE, Lanno R (2013) Soil properties affect the toxicities of TNT and RDX to the enchytraeid worm, Enchytraeus crypticus: explosives toxicities to enchytraeid worms in natural soils. Environ Toxicol Chem:n/a-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2356
Lachance B, Renoux AY, Sarrazin M, Hawari J, Sunahara GI (2004) Toxicity and bioaccumulation of reduced TNT metabolites in the earthworm Eisenia andrei exposed to amended forest soil. Chemosphere 55(10):1339–1348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2003.11.049
Lal N, Srivastava N (2010) Phytoremediation of toxic explosives. In: Ashraf M, Ozturk M, Ahmad MSA (eds) Plant adaptation and phytoremediation. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 383–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9370-7_17
Lapointe M-C, Martel R, Cassidy DP (2020) RDX degradation by chemical oxidation using calcium peroxide in bench scale sludge systems. Environ Res 188(September):109836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109836
Leffler P, Brännäs E, Ragnvaldsson D, Wingfors H, Berglind R (2014) Toxicity and accumulation of trinitrotoluene (TNT) and its metabolites in Atlantic Salmon Alevins Exposed to an industrially polluted water. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2014.920756
Lotufo GR (2013) Ecotoxicity of explosives. In: Férard J-F, Blaise C (eds) Encyclopedia of aquatic ecotoxicology. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5704-2_32
Ludwichk R, Helferich OK, Kist CP, Lopes AC, Cavasotto T, Silva DC, Barreto-Rodrigues M (2015) Characterization and photocatalytic treatability of red water from Brazilian TNT industry. J Hazard Mater 293(August):81–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.03.017
Makris KC, Shakya KM, Datta R, Sarkar D, Pachanoor D (2007) High uptake of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by vetiver grass – potential for phytoremediation? Environ Pollut 146(1):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.06.020
Makris KC, Sarkar D, Datta R (2010) Coupling indigenous biostimulation and phytoremediation for the restoration of 2,4,6,-trinitrotoluene-contaminated sites. J Environ Monit 12:399. https://doi.org/10.1039/b908162c
Marshall M, Oxley JC (2009) Aspects of explosives detection. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374533-0.X0001-3
Nehrenheim E, Muter O, Odlare M, Rodriguez A, Cepurnieks G, Bartkevics V (2013) Toxicity assessment and biodegradation potential of water-soluble sludge containing 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. Water Sci Technol 68:1707–1714. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2013.416
Panja S, Sarkar D, Datta R (2018) Vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides) is capable of removing insensitive high explosives from munition industry wastewater. Chemosphere 209:920–927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.06.155
Panz K, Miksch K (2012) Phytoremediation of explosives (TNT, RDX, HMX) by wild-type and transgenic plants. J Environ Manag 113(December):85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.08.016
Pereira P, Bašić F, Bogunovic I, Barcelo D (2022) Russian-Ukrainian war impacts the total environment. Sci Total Environ 837:155865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155865
Pichtel J (2012) Distribution and fate of military explosives and propellants in soil: a review. Appl Environ Soil Sci 2012:1–33. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/617236
Rane NR, Tapase S, Kanojia A, Watharkar A, Salama ES, Jang M, Kumar Yadav K, Amin MA, Cabral-Pinto MMS, Jadhav JP, Jeon BH (2022) Molecular insights into plant–microbe interactions for sustainable remediation of contaminated environment. Bioresour Technol 344:126246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126246
Ribeiro EN, Da Silva FT, De Paiva, TCB (2012) Ecotoxicological evaluation of wastewater from 2.4.6-TNT production. J Environ Sci Health A 47:184–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2012.640550
Rodgers JD, Bunce NJ (2001) Treatment methods for the remediation of nitroaromatic explosives. Water Res 35(9):2101–2111
Rodrigues CM, Suchoronczek A, De Lima VA, Boldrini KR, De Lima PCG (2020) Toxicity of explosive effluent by Allium cepa and germination test. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 105(1):127–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-020-02904-y
Rylott EL, Bruce NC (2009) Plants disarm soil: engineering plants for the phytoremediation of explosives. Trends Biotechnol 27(2):73–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.11.001
Rylott EL, Jackson RG, Edwards J, Womack GL, Seth-Smith HMB, Rathbone DA, Strand SE, Bruce NC (2006) An explosive-degrading cytochrome P450 activity and its targeted application for the phytoremediation of RDX. Nat Biotechnol 24(2):216–219. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt1184
Rylott EL, Budarina MV, Barker A, Lorenz A, Strand SE, Bruce NC (2011) Engineering plants for the phytoremediation of RDX in the presence of the co-contaminating explosive TNT. New Phytol 192(2):405–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03807.x
Sandermann H (1999) Plant metabolism of organic xenobiotics. Status and prospects of the ‘green liver’ concept. In: Altman A, Ziv M, Izhar S (eds) Plant biotechnology and in vitro biology in the 21st century, vol 36. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 321–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-4661-6_74
Şener H, Anilanmert B, Cengiz S (2017) A fast method for monitoring of organic explosives in soil: a gas temperature gradient approach in LC–APCI/MS/MS. Chem Pap 71(5):971–979. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-016-0042-2
Serrano-González MY, Chandra R, Castillo-Zacarias C, Robledo-Padilla F, Magdalena de J, Rostro-Alanis, and Roberto Parra-Saldivar. (2018) Biotransformation and degradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by microbial metabolism and their interaction. Def Technol 14(2):151–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2018.01.004
Singh SN, Mishra S (2014) Phytoremediation of TNT and RDX. In: Singh SN (ed) Biological remediation of explosive residues. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 371–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01083-0_16
Singh N, Berns AE, Hennecke D, Hoerner J, Koerdel W, Schaeffer A (2010) Effect of soil organic matter chemistry on sorption of trinitrotoluene and 2,4-dinitrotoluene. J Hazard Mater 173(1–3):343–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.08.090
Smith RW, Tobias C, Vlahos P, Cooper C, Ballentine M, Ariyarathna T, Fallis S, Groshens TJ (2015) Mineralization of RDX-derived nitrogen to N 2 via denitrification in coastal marine sediments. Environ Sci Technol 49(4):2180–2187. https://doi.org/10.1021/es505074v
Srivastava N (2015) Phytoremediation of RDX. In: Ansari AA, Gill SS, Gill R, Lanza GR, Newman L (eds) Phytoremediation. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 265–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10395-2_18
Tauqeer HM, Karczewska A, Lewińska K, Fatima M, Khan SA, Farhad M, Turan V, Ramzani PMA, Iqbal M (2021) Environmental concerns associated with explosives (HMX, TNT, and RDX), heavy metals and metalloids from shooting range soils: prevailing issues, leading management practices, and future perspectives. In: Handbook of bioremediation. Elsevier, pp 569–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819382-2.00036-3
Thijs S, Weyens N, Sillen W, Gkorezis P, Carleer R, Vangronsveld J (2014) Potential for plant growth promotion by a consortium of stress-tolerant 2,4-dinitrotoluene-degrading bacteria: isolation and characterization of a military soil. Microb Biotechnol 7(4):294–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.12111
Thompson P (2010) Effect of mycorrhizal fungi on the phytoremediation of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). Environ Sci Technol 44(3):1112–1115
Tripathi SN, Singh VK, Srivastava P, Singh R, Devi RS, Kumar A, Bhadouria R (2020) Phytoremediation of Organic Pollutants. Elsevier eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-818095-2.00004-7
Van Aken B (2009) Transgenic plants for enhanced phytoremediation of toxic explosives. Curr Opin Biotechnol 20(2):231–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2009.01.011
Van Aken B, Skubisz K, Naveau H, Agathos SN (1997) Biodegradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) by the white-rot basidiomycete Phlebia radiata. Biotechnol Lett 19(8):813–817. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018360814703
van Dillewijn P, Caballero A, Paz JA, Mar González-Pérez M, Oliva JM, Ramos JL (2007) Bioremediation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene under field conditions. Environ Sci Technol 41(4):1378–1383. https://doi.org/10.1021/es062165z
van Dillewijn P, Couselo JL, Corredoira E, Delgado A, Wittich R-M, Ballester A, Ramos JL (2008) Bioremediation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by bacterial nitroreductase expressing transgenic aspen. Environ Sci Technol 42(19):7405–7410. https://doi.org/10.1021/es801231w
Vanek T, Gerth A, Vakrikova Z, Podlipna R, Soudek P (2007) Phytoremediation of explosives. In: Marmiroli N, Samotokin B, Marmiroli M (eds) Advanced science and technology for biological decontamination of sites affected by chemical and radiological nuclear agents, vol 75. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5520-1_13
Via SM (2020) Phytoremediation of explosives. In: Shmaefsky BR (ed) Phytoremediation, Concepts and strategies in plant sciences. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 261–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00099-8_8
Via SM, Manley PV (2023) Effects of major munitions compounds on plant health and function. In: Plant and their interaction to Environmental Pollution (Husen Ed.) Elsevier eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-99978-6.00019-4
Via SM, Zinnert JC (2016) Impacts of explosive compounds on vegetation: a need for community scale investigations. Environ Pollut 208(Pt B):495–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.10.020
Vila M, Lorber-Pascal S, Laurent F (2007a) Fate of RDX and TNT in agronomic plants. Environ Pollut 148(1):148–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.10.030
Vila M, Mehier S, Lorber-Pascal S, Laurent F (2007b) Phytoxicity to and uptake of RDX by rice. Environ Pollut 145(3):813–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.05.009
Vila M, Lorber-Pascal S, Laurent F (2008) Phytotoxicity to and uptake of TNT by rice. Environ Geochem Health 30:199–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-008-9145-1
Wang C, Lyon DY, Hughes JB, Bennett GN (2003) Role of hydroxylamine intermediates in the phytotransformation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by Myriophyllum aquaticum. Environ Sci Technol 37:3595–3600. https://doi.org/10.1021/es030010a
Wu H, Lai C, Zeng G, Liang J, Chen J, Xu J, Dai J, Li X, Liu J, Chen M et al (2017) The interactions of composting and biochar and their implications for soil amendment and pollution remediation: a review. Crit Rev Biotechnol 37(6):754–764. https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2016.1232696
Yoon JM, Byung-Taek O, Just CL, Schnoor JL (2002) Uptake and leaching of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine by hybrid poplar trees. Environ Sci Technol 36(21):4649–4655. https://doi.org/10.1021/es020673c
Yu HA, Daeid NN, Dawson LA, DeTata DA, Lewis SW (2017) Explosive detonation causes an increase in soil porosity leading to increased TNT transformation. PLoS One 12(12):e0189177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189177. Edited by Budiman Minasny
Zapata F, García-Ruiz C (2020) Chemical classification of explosives. Crit Rev Anal Chem:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408347.2020.1760783
Zhang L, Rylott EL, Bruce NC, Strand SE (2017) Phytodetoxification of TNT by transplastomic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) expressing a bacterial nitroreductase. Plant Mol Biol 95(1–2):99–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-017-0639-z
Zhang L, Rylott EL, Bruce NC, Strand SE (2019) Genetic modification of western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum Smithii) for the phytoremediation of RDX and TNT. Planta 249(4):1007–1015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-018-3057-9. Cabrera, Ma
Zhu S-H, Reuther J, Liu J, Crocker FH, Indest KJ, Eltis LD, Mohn WW (2015) The essential role of nitrogen limitation in expression of XplA and degradation of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) in Gordonia Sp. strain KTR9. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99(1):459–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-014-6013-z
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Heisnam, D., Shankar, S., Chandra, D., Goel, D., Mishra, A., Kushwaha, M. (2023). Explosive Contamination in Soil: Sources, Environmental Concerns, and Phytoremediation. In: Singh, R., Singh, P., Tripathi, S., Chandra, K.K., Bhadouria, R. (eds) Xenobiotics in Urban Ecosystems. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35775-6_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35775-6_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-35774-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-35775-6
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)