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Physiology of Testicular Function

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Andrology

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Abstract

The male gonads, the testes, fulfill two essential functions. They are the site of spermatogenesis. The male gametes, the sperm, are produced here. As important is their second function as an endocrine gland that synthesizes androgens. Androgens are necessary for the formation of the typical male phenotype. The male gonad develops during the embryonic phase when the SRY gene is expressed in sex differentiation and a testosterone signal occurs.

Testicular tissue is divided into two main compartments: the seminiferous tubules, which are surrounded by peristaltically active peritubular cells, and house the germinal epithelium where the germ cells differentiate through meiosis into haploidization to finally form spermatozoa. The second compartment consists of the interstitium, containing the Leydig cells, which synthesize steroids and produce androgens. In immunological terms, the further differentiated germ cells are protected by the blood–testis barrier, which is formed by the Sertoli cells. The Sertoli cells also provide the niche of spermatogonial stem cells which are unipotent adult stem cells and drive spermatogenesis lifelong after puberty onset. The complex processes of germ cell maturation are regulated by numerous factors, including cytokines, transcriptional and growth factors, but especially by endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signals.

The endocrine function is part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Numerous hormones and receptors act along this axis in a balanced feedback mechanism. Primarily, the system is driven by kisspeptin and pulsatile GnRH controlling the secretion of the pituitary gonadotropins LH and FSH, which in turn induce effects on the testes. LH stimulates the production of testosterone, whilst FSH acts on Sertoli cells and provokes an inhibin response. Testosterone, which is present in the testes in much higher concentrations than in the serum, and inhibin in turn regulate gonadotropin secretion in negative feedback, resulting in an endocrine control loop along the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. FSH and androgen action are essential for quantitatively and qualitatively complete spermatogenesis.

Testosterone and its various metabolites, especially dihydrotestosterone and estradiol, are necessary for the normal male development of numerous target organs, including bone metabolism, muscles, hair and beard growth, vocal register, fat distribution, and certain brain functions.

Disorders of testicular function can have various causes, such as genetic or disease-related. Such disorders lead to prenatal disorders of sex differentiation and postnatally to further pathological consequences such as infertility or hypogonadism, which are associated with numerous specifically male diseases.

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  1. Center of Reproductive Medicine and Andrology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany

    Joachim Wistuba, Nina Neuhaus & Eberhard Nieschlag

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  1. Joachim Wistuba
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  2. Nina Neuhaus
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Correspondence to Joachim Wistuba .

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  1. Center for Reproductive Medicine and Andrology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany

    Eberhard Nieschlag

  2. Center for Reproductive Medicine and Andrology, University Hospital Halle (Saale), Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany

    Hermann M. Behre

  3. Center for Reproductive Medicine and Andrology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany

    Sabine Kliesch

  4. Center for Reproductive Medicine and Andrology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany

    Susan Nieschlag

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Wistuba, J., Neuhaus, N., Nieschlag, E. (2023). Physiology of Testicular Function. In: Nieschlag, E., Behre, H.M., Kliesch, S., Nieschlag, S. (eds) Andrology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31574-9_2

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