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How to Tame the Beast? Toward a ‘Regulation Revolution’ in the Digital Platform Economy

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Abstract

Sulyok discusses legal and regulatory issues that arise in a ‘platform context.’ The author contrasts some of the natural drivers nurturing the digital platform ecosystem and incentivizing technological progress, and testing the limits of nations as digital regulators. The ‘IT-debate,’ which nowadays revolves around how to tackle growing pressures by recent IT developments, has gained weight in public discourse. In discussing essential state functions in a digital context, relevant questions for legal scholars, regulators, and economists are addressed, including when and to what extent States should regulate digital markets to set rights and delimit possible violations that range from privacy to freedom of speech. As States breach the digital barrier through technological evolution, the concept of sovereignty emerges in the digital sphere which leads to a ‘regulatory revolution’ that materializes in increased regulation of big data, much scrutizined actions of the ‘big five,’ and algorithmic decision-making, among others. A long-standing question in the legal community is whether law has primacy over policy or vice versa. However, in today’s digital context, the question should rather be whether the platform economy has primacy over law (politics and policy) or whether it should be the other way around.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Creative destruction refers to Schumpeter’s thesis about innovation and capitalism. See, for example, Ricardo J. Caballero: Creative Destruction. In: Steven N. Durlauf and Lawrence E. Blume (eds.): The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, Second Edition, 2008. Available online at: https://economics.mit.edu/sites/default/files/publications/creative%20destruction.pdf.

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    Zhou K., Liu, T., & Zhou, L.: Industry 4.0: Towards future industrial opportunities and challenges. In 2015 12th International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge Discovery, K. (FSKD), 2015. pp. 2147–2152. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/FSKD.2015.7382284.

  3. 3.

    For a summary of the challenges, see, for example, Čas J. (2011) Ubiquitous Computing, Privacy and Data Protection: Options and Limitations to Reconcile the Unprecedented Contradictions. in Gutwirth S., Poullet Y., De Hert P., Leenes R. (eds) Computers, Privacy and Data Protection: an Element of Choice. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0641-5_7.

  4. 4.

    Gyüre, F.: A negyedik ipari forradalom digitális újításai – Állapotfigyelő-karbantartó rendszerek hatása a termelékenységre (Digital Innovations of the Fourth Industrial Revolution—The Impact of Condition Monitoring and Maintenance Systems on Productivity), Külügyi Műhely, 2021/1, pp. 89. (in Hungarian) DOI: https://doi.org/10.36817/km.2021.1.4.

  5. 5.

    Ibid., p. 86.

  6. 6.

    Autor, D.H.: Why are there still so many jobs? The history and future of workplace automation. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 29, No.3. DOI: 10.1257/jep.29.3.3.

  7. 7.

    Khasreen, M. M., P. F. G. Banfill, G. F. Menzies, Life-Cycle Assessment and the Environmental Impact of Buildings: A Review, Sustainability, vol. 1, 2009, pp. 674–701. There is also an opportunity for increased digital market entry into the digital market in Hungary, where emerging digital services have the potential to capture a large global market share, see: Ślusarczyk, B., Tvaronavičienė, M., Ul Haque, A., & Oláh, J. (2020). Predictors of Industry 4.0 technologies affecting logistic enterprises’ performance: international perspective from economic lens. Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 26(6), pp. 1263–1283. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2020.13376.

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    Fruzsina Nábelek – Anikó Sturcz - István János Tóth: Az automatizáció munkaerő-piaci hatásai. Járási munkaerő-piacok automatizációs kitettségének becslése (The labor market effects of automation. Estimating the exposure of district labor markets to automation) MKIK GVI Kutatási Füzetek, 2016/4. pp. 5. https://gvi.hu/files/researches/483/aki_2016_elemzes_171122.pdf.

  9. 9.

    Saru Arifin: Artificial intelligence in the workplace—how should moral and legal issues be addressed? Pro Publico Bono, 2021/4, 94–109. DOI: 10.32575/ppb.2021.4.6.

  10. 10.

    https://www.abajournal.com/web/article/latest-version-of-chatgpt-aces-the-bar-exam-with-score-in-90th-percentile#:~:text=The%20latest%20version%20of%20the,of%20273%20set%20by%20Arizona.

  11. 11.

    See: David Fine, András Havas, Solveigh Hieronimus, Levente Jánoskuti, András Kadocsa, Péter Puskás: Transforming workplaces—the impact of automation in Hungary. May 2018. https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Locations/Europe%20and%20Middle%20East/Hungary/Our%20Insights/Transforming%20our%20jobs%20automation%20in%20Hungary/Automation-report-on-Hungary-HU-May24.ashx.

  12. 12.

    Andreas Kluth: A Crisis of Masculinity as Robots Replace Men. Bloomberg Opinion. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2021-12-07/industrial-robots-are-a-boon-but-they-are-creating-a-crisis-of-masculinity?srnd=premium-europe.

  13. 13.

    European digitalization efforts in 2020 are summarized from the perspective of the functioning of several public subsystems in the article by László Trócsányi - Gábor Lovászy László (szerk.): Európai körkép (Ludovika, Budapest, 2020). In particular, see the chapters on the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Holland, Croatia, Ireland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Germany, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Slovenia, and Sweden.

  14. 14.

    https://automatingsociety.algorithmwatch.org/report2020/belgium/ pp. 8.

  15. 15.

    https://2015-2019.kormany.hu/download/f/58/d1000/NDS.pdf pp. 78. (On p. 21., the Strategy also mentions the impact on the labor market, which we have mentioned as a negative, as a problem to be expected from 2030.)

  16. 16.

    Mick Chisnall: Are we becoming digital slaves? Why online ‘privacy’ is a misnomer, March 4th, 2020 https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2020/03/04/are-we-becoming-digital-slaves-why-online-privacy-is-a-misnomer/.

  17. 17.

    Helena Vieira: Leslie Willcocks: the role automation plays in creating jobs has been largely ignored, March 23rd, 2018 https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2018/03/23/leslie-willcocks-the-role-automation-plays-in-creating-jobs-has-been-largely-ignored/ In contrast, see our earlier finding that, as far as we know, only 55 professions can be automated.

  18. 18.

    Cf. https://insights.sap.com/digitization-vs-digitalization/ (Note: in Hungarian sources there is basically no distinction between the two terms, the absolute exclusivity of ‘digitalization’ is typical, as we use only this term for automation, see below.)

  19. 19.

    See https://thecontentauthority.com/blog/automation-vs-automatization.

  20. 20.

    Taher Ahmadzadegan: What is Industrial Automation? 10 July 2016. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/what-industrial-automation-taher-ahmadzadegan.

  21. 21.

    https://innovention.hu/2020/11/02/robotok-az-iparban/.

  22. 22.

    https://support.apple.com/hu-hu/HT208940.

  23. 23.

    https://www.hwsw.hu/hirek/62824/alexa-megerzesek-hunches-automatikus-virtualis-asszisztens-amazon.html.

  24. 24.

    https://trifo.com/.

  25. 25.

    See: Maria Luce Lupetti, Stefano Rosa, Gabriele Ermacora: From a Robotic Vacuum Cleaner to Robot Companion: Acceptance and Engagement in Domestic Environments HRI’15 Extended Abstracts: Proceedings of the Tenth Annual ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction Extended Abstracts March 2015. pp. 119–120. https://doi.org/10.1145/2701973.2702004.

  26. 26.

    https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/dec/29/amazons-alexa-child-penny-live-plug.

  27. 27.

    https://www.publicaffairsbooks.com/titles/orly-lobel/the-equality-machine/9781541774735/.

  28. 28.

    Margot Kaminski: Disruptive Platforms. JOTWELL (July 19, 2017) (reviewing Orly Lobel, The Law of the Platform, 101 Minn. L. Rev. 87 (2016)), pp. 1–3. https://scholar.law.colorado.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1830&context=faculty-articles.

  29. 29.

    Judit Bayer, Bernd Holznagel, Päivi Korpisaari, Lorna Woods (eds.): Perspectives on Platform Regulation. Concepts and Models of Social Media Governance Across the Globe. Nomos, 2021. p. 5.

  30. 30.

    Ibid.

  31. 31.

    See Mick Chisnall, Digital slavery, a time for abolition, Policy Studies, 41/2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2020.1724926.

  32. 32.

    Judit Bayer, Bernd Holznagel, Päivi Korpisaari, Lorna Woods. Conclusions: Regulatory Responses to Communication Platforms: Models and Limits. In: Bayer-Holznagel, Korpisaari, Woods 2021, p. 568.

  33. 33.

    Bianka MAKSÓ– Lilla Nóra KISS: Do not bury the lede: Your data, their money. available at Constitutional Discourse, 2022: https://www.constitutionaldiscourse.com/post/bianka-maks%C3%B3-lilla-n%C3%B3ra-kiss-do-not-bury-the-lede-your-data-their-money.

  34. 34.

    Later in this paper, we will also discuss the legal issues raised by another approach to autonomy in relation to so-called autonomous weapon systems with decision-making capabilities.

  35. 35.

    See Chisnall 2020. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2020/03/04/are-we-becoming-digital-slaves-why-online-privacy-is-a-misnomer/.

  36. 36.

    Article VI of the Fundamental Law of Hungary in its current form can be read at: https://hunconcourt.hu/uploads/sites/3/2021/01/thefundamentallawofhungary_20201223_fin.pdf.

  37. 37.

    Guide to the Case-Law of the ECHR—Data protection. 31 August 2022. On this specifically, see: pp. 31–85. Available at: https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Guide_Data_protection_ENG.pdf.

  38. 38.

    https://ec.europa.eu/info/aid-development-cooperation-fundamental-rights/your-rights-eu/eu-charter-fundamental-rights_en.

  39. 39.

    https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj.

  40. 40.

    Hamuľák, Ondrej; Kiss, Lilla Nóra; Gábriš, Tomáš; Kocharyan, Hovsep: “This Content is not Available in your Country” A General Summary on Geo-Blocking in and Outside the European Union. International and Comparative Law Review. 2021:1, pp.153–183. Available at: https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/iclr-2021-0006.

  41. 41.

    Article 4.4 of Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council (hereinafter ‘GDPR’) ‘profiling’ means any form of automated processing of personal data by which personal data are used to evaluate certain personal aspects relating to a natural person, in particular to analyze or predict the performance, economic situation, health, personal preferences, interests, reliability, behavior, location or movements of a natural person.

  42. 42.

    Data Is Power: Profiling and Automated Decision-Making in GDPR, [Online], Privacy International, 2017. Accessible from: https://privacyinternational.org/sites/default/files/2018-04.

  43. 43.

    For further reading on this topic, we recommend the following doctoral thesis on the legal and technological analysis of the GDPR in the context of the application of household social robots: Gizem Gültekin Várkonyi: Application of the General Data Protection Regulation on Household Social Robots, University of Szeged, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences—Innovariant, Szeged, 2021.

  44. 44.

    GDPR Article 22 (1).

  45. 45.

    For more on the ADM problem, see. Gültekin Várkonyi 2021. pp. 95–99.

  46. 46.

    https://www.facebook.com/business/help/223852498347426?id=2393014447396453.

  47. 47.

    Judit Bayer, Bernd Holznagel, Päivi Korpisaari, Lorna Woods. Conclusions: Regulatory Responses to Communication Platforms: Models and Limits. In: Bayer-Holznagel-Korpisaari-Woods 2021, 565 et ss.

  48. 48.

    Also, if a robot would assist to a person in ordering medication, it may perceive their ‘mental health profile’ as depressive, then decide to order some non-chemical medicine to combat depression. This requires basic communication to the pharmacy, but a bigger problem is that the robot may misjudge the status of the person, which could lead to monetary loss or, in extreme cases, even enduring health damage. Cf. Gültekin Várkonyi 2021, 98.

  49. 49.

    Lilla Nóra Kiss: Monitoring Social Media. Law and Liberty. 28 July 2022. Available at: https://lawliberty.org/monitoring-social-media/.

  50. 50.

    See Commissioner Viviane Reding’s speech of 27 January 2014: A data protection compact for Europe. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_14_62.

  51. 51.

    Frank Andrade: Is Data The New Oil of the 21st Century or Just an Overrated Asset? Comparing data and oil in plain English. Towards Data Science. 21 July 2022. Available at: https://towardsdatascience.com/is-data-the-new-oil-of-the-21st-century-or-just-an-overrated-asset-1dbb05b8ccdf.

  52. 52.

    Jozef Andraško - Matúš Mesarčík - Ondrej Hamuľák: The regulatory intersections between artificial intelligence, data protection and cyber security: challenges and opportunities for the EU legal framework, AI & Soc 36, 623–636 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-020-01125-5.

  53. 53.

    Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonized rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain Union legislative acts (EU AI Act) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1623335154975&uri=CELEX%3A52021PC0206.

  54. 54.

    https://edpb.europa.eu/news/news/2021/edpb-edps-call-ban-use-ai-automated-recognition-human-features-publicly-accessible_en (21 June 2021).

  55. 55.

    EU AI Act.

  56. 56.

    Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on machinery products https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/45508; https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/mechanical-engineering/machinery_en.

  57. 57.

    https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/news-redirect/709091.

  58. 58.

    For more on the subject, see, for example, the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung’s analysis on the subject, Chris Fei Shen: Social Credit System in China (online) https://www.kas.de/documents/288143/4843367/panorama_digital_asia_v3a_Shen.pdf/a55cefce-8e97-32d6-63a4-2e4cc47c0513.

  59. 59.

    Santosh K. Misra; Satyasiba Das; Sumeet Gupta; Sujeet K. Sharma: Public Policy and Regulatory Challenges of Artificial Intelligence (AI). In: Sharma, S.K., Dwivedi, Y.K., Metri, B., Rana, N.P. (eds) Re-imagining Diffusion and Adoption of Information Technology and Systems: A Continuing Conversation. TDIT 2020. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, vol 617. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64849-7_10. Available at: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-64849-7_10. For a comprehensive overview of the field in the Hungarian literature, see: Török, Bernát – Ződi., Zsolt (eds.): A mesterséges intelligencia szabályozási kihívásai (The regulatory challenges of artificial intelligence). Ludovika, Budapest, 2021.

  60. 60.

    See, for example, Phil Laplante, Ben Amaba: Artificial Intelligence in Critical Infrastructure Systems. In: Computer. Published by the IEEE Computer Society. 24 September 2021. Available at: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=9548022.

  61. 61.

    Opinions are divided on the use of the VeriPol ‘automatic lie detection’ AI system introduced by the Spanish authorities. See, for example, https://algorithmwatch.org/en/spain-police-veripol/ or https://www.bestpractice.ai/studies/spanish_national_police_identifies_false_robbery_reports_with_over_80_accuracy_using_machine_learning_and_natural_language_processing.

  62. 62.

    See, for example, the ideas for the development of the EU-LISA (European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice) system, see, for example, https://www.eulisa.europa.eu/Publications/Reports/AI%20in%20the%20OM%20of%20Large-scale%20IT%20Systems.pdf.

  63. 63.

    Report on artificial intelligence in education, culture and the audiovisual sector https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-9-2021-0127_EN.html.

  64. 64.

    A Europe ready for the digital age: Commission proposes new rules and actions for excellence and trust in artificial intelligence, European Commission - Press release, 21 April 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_21_1682.

  65. 65.

    Misha Benjamin-Kevin Buehler-Rachel Dooley-Peter Zipparo: Proposed EU rules are just one more step toward global AI regulation. Here’s how smart organizations are preparing for compliance-and managing AI risk. August 10, 2021. https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/what-the-draft-european-union-ai-regulations-mean-for-business; see also Aida Ponce Del Castillo: The EU should refocus the AI Act on workers and people, 17 December 2021. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/technology-and-democracy/the-eu-should-refocus-the-ai-act-on-workers-and-people/.

  66. 66.

    https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/ethics-guidelines-trustworthy-ai.

  67. 67.

    Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Artificial Intelligence for Europe https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-register/detail?ref=COM(2018)237&lang=en.

  68. 68.

    https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/hu/IP_18_6689.

  69. 69.

    https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/communication-building-trust-human-centric-artificial-intelligence.

  70. 70.

    https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/excellence-trust-artificial-intelligence_en.

  71. 71.

    Commission Report on safety and liability implications of AI, the Internet of Things and Robotics https://ec.europa.eu/info/publications/commission-report-safety-and-liability-implications-ai-internet-things-and-robotics-0_en.

  72. 72.

    James C. Cooper – John M. Yun: Antitrust and Privacy—It’s Complicated. University of Illinois, Journal of Law, Technology & Policy, 2/2022, pp. 343–397, (2022), citation from p. 349. Available online at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3871873.

  73. 73.

    For instance, in terms of law enforcement, see: 01/2021 Recommendation on the compliance reference under the Directive on data protection in law enforcement https://edpb.europa.eu/system/files/2021-05/recommendations012021onart.36led.pdf_hu.pdf.

  74. 74.

    Can I be subject to automated individual decision-making, including profiling? https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/law-topic/data-protection/reform/rights-citizens/my-rights/can-i-be-subject-automated-individual-decision-making-including-profiling_hu.

  75. 75.

    See: Szentgáli-Tóth, Boldizsár Artúr – Kálmán, Kinga – Fazekas, Cintia – Szerencsés, Krisztián – Takács, Judit: Demokrácia a pandémia árnyékában: választások a világjárvány idején a környező országokban – Magyarország számára hasznosítható tapasztalatok és perspektívák. (Democracy in the shadow of pandemic: elections in the surrounding countries during the pandemic—experiences and perspectives for Hungary). MTA Law Working Papers 2021 (31) or Kálmán, Kinga: Nyomokban kódokat tartalmazhat? (May contain traces of code) In MTA Law Working Papers, AI and Law Series (2), (2021).

  76. 76.

    Cf., for example, Tania Sourdin: Judge v. Robot? Artificial Intelligence and Judicial Decision-Making. UNSW Law Journal. 48(4):2018: 1114–1133. https://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Sourdin.pdf.

  77. 77.

    Cf., for example, Medvedeva, M., Vols, M. & Wieling, M. Using machine learning to predict decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. Artificial Intelligence and Law 28, 237–266 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-019-09255-y.

  78. 78.

    https://index.hu/belfold/2020/10/05/mesterseges_intelligencia_online_birosagok_digitalizacio_itelet_biroi_dontes_informacios_technologia/.

  79. 79.

    NB another deliberately chosen female human name on top of Alexa, Siri, Lucy—based on the examples above.

  80. 80.

    https://medium.com/astec/prometea-artificial-intelligence-in-the-judicial-system-of-argentina-4dfbde079c40.

  81. 81.

    See, for example, Dimitra Markopoulou, Vagelis Papakonstantinou: The regulatory framework for the protection of critical infrastructures against cyberthreats: Identifying shortcomings and addressing future challenges: The case of the health sector in particular. Computer Law & Security Review, Vol. 41, 2021. ISSN 0267-3649, pp. 1–12. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0267364920301072.

  82. 82.

    See: Ödön Harka: A gépesített háború elméletének nyugat-európai teoretikusai a két világháború között, 1. Rész (The Western European Theorists of the Theory of Mechanised Warfare in the Period between the Two World Wars—Part One), Hadtudományi Szemle (War Studies Review), 1/2020. pp. 103–111., available at: https://folyoirat.ludovika.hu/index.php/hsz/article/download/538/3406/11381.

  83. 83.

    The Weaponization of Increasingly Autonomous Technologies: Autonomous Weapon Systems and Cyber Operations https://unidir.org/files/publications/pdfs/autonomous-weapon-systems-and-cyber-operations-en-690.pdf.

  84. 84.

    Hárs András: AI and International Law: Legal Personality and Regulation Avenues, Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies, 4/2021., pp. 320–344. Available at: https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2052/62/4/article-p320.xml.

  85. 85.

    Cf. Additional Protocols I and II to the Conventions relating to the Protection of Victims of War, done at Geneva on 12 August 1949.

  86. 86.

    James Kraska: Command Accountability for AI Weapon Systems in the Law of Armed Conflict, U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, January 28, 2021. Available at: https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/ils/vol97/iss1/22/; Hárs: op. cit supra. 2021.

  87. 87.

    Daniele Amoroso - Guglielme Tamburrini: Autonomous Weapons Systems and Meaningful Human Control: Ethical and Legal Issues. Current Robotics Reports 1. pp. 187–194. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43154-020-00024-3.

  88. 88.

    https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/08/21/heed-call/moral-and-legal-imperative-ban-killer-robots.

  89. 89.

    In the framework of the LAWS Expert Working Group, Neil Davison summarized the international legal approaches to AWS systems in the context of international humanitarian law in: A legal perspective: autonomous weapon systems under international humanitarian law, UNODA Occasional Papers No. 30. Views of the ICRC on autonomous weapon systems, paper submitted to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons Meeting of Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), 11 April 2016, https://www.icrc.org/en/document/views-icrc-autonomous-weapon-system.

  90. 90.

    https://www.stopkillerrobots.org/.

  91. 91.

    https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/11/19/losing-humanity/case-against-killer-robots.

  92. 92.

    Viola Vincze: The principle of military necessity in the light of new weapons systems, ELTE Legal Studies 2016. pp. 467–478. (online) https://edit.elte.hu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10831/35815/Jogi_tan_2016_Vince_Viola_p_467-478.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

  93. 93.

    In this context, see. Laura Bruun: Autonomous weapon systems: what the law says—and does not say—about the human role in the use of force, November 2021 (and podcast discussion) here: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2021/11/11/autonomous-weapon-systems-law-human-role/.

  94. 94.

    Cf. https://liberland.org/en/.

  95. 95.

    The above are some references to the so-called Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States from 1933. Available at: https://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/01/1-02/rights-duties-states.xml. These frames are seen by the author to redefine by technology.

  96. 96.

    Szigeti, Péter: A nemzetállami szuverenitás közjogi fogalmának védhetősége és ami azon túl van… (The defense of the public law concept of nation state sovereignty and what is beyond that...) MTA Law Working Papers, 2014/15. Magyar Tudományos Akadémia/Hungarian Academy of Sciences Budapest ISSN 2064-4515. Available online at: http://real.mtak.hu/120088/1/2014_15_Szigeti.pdf.

  97. 97.

    David Held: Political Theory Today, 1991, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, pp. 196–235.

  98. 98.

    Jozef Valuch, Tomáš Gábriš, Ondrej Hamuľák: Cyber Attacks, Information Attacks and Postmodern Warfare. Baltic Journal of Law and Politics, 1/2017, pp. 63–89. Available at: https://sciendo.com/article/10.1515/bjlp-2017-0003.

  99. 99.

    https://www.brusselseffect.com.

  100. 100.

    Vagelis Papakonstantinou: States as Platforms under the New EU ’online platforms’ law. European Law Blog. 4 July 2022. https://europeanlawblog.eu/2022/07/04/states-as-platforms-under-new-eu-online-platforms-law/.

  101. 101.

    Ibid.

  102. 102.

    The most telling example of this, is the famous 2008 ’Online Durchsuchung’ case of the German Federal Constitutional Court, in which the justices have deduced a fundamental right to the ’confidentiality and integrity of IT systems’ from the general right to personality (allgemeines Persönlichkeitsrecht) to protect the individual from covert online investigations directed at closed-circuit communication networks. (To access the decision: https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2008/02/rs20080227_1bvr037007.html).

  103. 103.

    Hamuľák, O.; Vardanyan, L.; Kocharyan, H. (2021). The Global Reach of the Right to be Forgotten through the Lenses of the Court of Justice of the European Union. Czech Yearbook of Public & Private International Law, 12, 196−211.

  104. 104.

    Cf. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Draft-Report-of-the-Commission-on-Unalienable-Rights.pdf.

  105. 105.

    However, there are some who make the argument that whoever dominates the playing field as a regulatory power falls behind in being a champion of innovation (in the context of the Digital Markets Act of the EU). Cf. Aurelien Portuese: The Digital Markets Act: A Triumph of Regulation Over Innovation. August 2022. ITIF Schumpeter Project on Competition Policy. Available online at: https://www2.itif.org/2022-digital-markets-act.pdf.

  106. 106.

    Lilla Nóra KISS: Lex Facebook or Tax Facebook? Options beyond the self-regulation of IT companies. Constitutional Discourse, May 19, 2021, available at: https://www.constitutionaldiscourse.com/post/lilla-nora-kiss-lex-facebook.

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  1. Mathias Corvinus Collegium (MCC), Budapest, Hungary

    Márton Sulyok

  2. Institute of Public Law, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary

    Márton Sulyok

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  1. George Mason University, Arlington, VA, USA

    Zoltan J. Acs

  2. Business School, Costa Rica Institute of Technology (ITCR), Cartago, Costa Rica

    Esteban Lafuente

  3. Faculty of Business and Economics University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary

    László Szerb

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Sulyok, M. (2023). How to Tame the Beast? Toward a ‘Regulation Revolution’ in the Digital Platform Economy. In: Acs, Z.J., Lafuente, E., Szerb, L. (eds) The Entrepreneurial Ecosystem. Palgrave Studies in Entrepreneurship and Society. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25931-9_11

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