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Investigating Perceptions of Out-groups in Sport and United States Politics

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Intense Group Behavior and Brand Negativity

Abstract

The current study investigated how fans and supporters of sport teams and political parties in the United States viewed relevant out-groups and out-group members. Specifically, perceptions of rival sport teams and political parties were compared to determine how fans and supporters differed in their views and likely behaviors toward out-groups. Findings showed that sport fans reported more positive attitudes toward their favorite teams and more negative attitudes of the rival team than in politics. However, political supporters reported more negative perceptions and likely behaviors toward the out-group than fans of sport. Additional analysis revealed that the common in-group influenced perceptions. Finally, political affiliation also influenced the way participants view and their likely behaviors. Research and practical implications are discussed, and additional research avenues are introduced.

I want to send a special thank you to Dr. Peter Longo from the University of Nebraska, Kearny for his unwavering support and encouragement in this and other research endeavors.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The Robber’s Cave Experiment, in which middle-school boys in a summer camp setting competed against each other and found ways to derogate the relevant out-group is an early empirical example (Sherif et al., 1961).

  2. 2.

    Research shows that characteristics such as an individual’s self-esteem (Golec de Zavala et al., 2019), desires of feeling successful (Crocker & Park, 2004; Deci, 1975), and perceived deservedness of misfortune influence out-group derogation (Berndsen et al., 2017; Brambilla & Riva, 2017).

  3. 3.

    The phenomenon of rivalry can be influenced by competition outcomes (Havard, Reams, et al., 2013), change or reclassification of competition (Havard & Eddy, 2013; Havard, Wann, et al., 2013, 2017; Havard, Wann, Ryan, et al., 2017), promotional messaging and advertisements (Havard, Wann, et al., 2018; Nichols, & Raska, 2016), news stories and headlines (Havard & Eddy, 2019; Havard, Ferrucci, et al., 2019), league or conference affiliation (Cobbs et al., 2017; Havard, 2016; Havard & Reams, 2016), location or geography (Cobbs et al., 2019), prior attendance (Havard, Wann, Grieve, and Ryan, 2021), and years attending a university or college (Havard, Achen, et al., 2020).

  4. 4.

    People reported a game between rival teams to be more violent in nature than games between non-rival teams.

  5. 5.

    The use of social media to allow people to disseminate criticism of party policy and/or representatives allow many to experience GORFing.

  6. 6.

    Participants that reported being a fan of both politics and sport completed two sections about their relevant favorite brands (e.g., in politics and sport) and two sections about their relevant rival brands (e.g., in politics and sport).

  7. 7.

    Information on the ANES, along with analysis and commentary about elections and political affiliation in the United States is available at www.electionstudies.org.

  8. 8.

    Sport—support rival team when playing someone other than the favorite team. Politicssupport the rival political party if they would help the country.

  9. 9.

    Sport—defeating the rival in head-to-head competition. Politicsfavorite party defeating rival party in an election.

  10. 10.

    Higher scores indicate more likelihood of supporting the rival brand in indirect competition.

  11. 11.

    Six separate MANOVAs were appropriate because to examine the influence of gender and ethnicity on each hypothesis (e.g., H1—Sport Only vs. Politics Only, also H4 same analysis for Politics Only; H2—Politics Only vs. Politics and Sport; H3—Sport Only vs. Sport and Politics).

  12. 12.

    Participants were given the opportunity to identify as an Independent, however, no such useable responses in the current study were returned.

  13. 13.

    The working ‘less negative’ was used because participants still reported scores below the 4.0 mid-point on the scale.

  14. 14.

    Sport and Disney Theme Park Fandom; Sport and Comics Genre Fandom—being a fan of both groups influenced more positivity toward both relevant out-groups. Sport and Console esport Fandom; Sport and Online/Console esport Fandom—being a fan of both groups influenced more positivity toward relevant esport out-groups and no significant differences regarding rival sport teams.

  15. 15.

    It is important to note that both Democrat and Republican participants reported above the mid-point of four for the support and GORFing measures.

  16. 16.

    Similar to a proposed hierarchy of rivalry in college athletics (Havard & Lomenick, 2019).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA

    Cody T. Havard

  2. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA

    Elizabeth Theiss-Morse

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  1. Cody T. Havard
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Correspondence to Cody T. Havard .

Appendix

Appendix

Table 2.6 Scale items used in the current study to measure rivalry in sport
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Table 2.7 Modified scale items used in the current study to measure rivalry in politics
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Havard, C.T., Theiss-Morse, E. (2023). Investigating Perceptions of Out-groups in Sport and United States Politics. In: Intense Group Behavior and Brand Negativity. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23456-9_2

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