Abstract
This chapter is devoted to the fundamental principles of electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) sources yielding H− and D− negative ions. Initially, it provides a brief but meaningful overview of the theoretical framework for ECR plasmas along with commonly employed experimental configurations, unveiling thus the distinct features of this special category of high-frequency electrical discharges. It is highlighted that it is not aimed to cover the vast field of microwave discharges (e.g., microwave discharges in waveguides and resonators), nor the vast field of wave-heated discharges (e.g., helicon discharges and surface wave discharges). Such an attempt would be a utopia within the frame of one book chapter. Therefore, Sect. 12.1 of this chapter presents elementary physical quantities of plasmas, related to the ECR idea, and an idealized, simplified concept of the complex wave propagation in ECR plasmas where the wave energy absorption is achieved through collision-less heating mechanism (Firdman and Kennedy, Plasma physics and engineering. New York: Taylors & Francis Books Inc., 2004; Williamson et al., J. Appl. Phys. 72:3924, 1992). The presentation concerns low-pressure, nonthermal, and nonequilibrium plasmas. Then, the core of this review is devoted to the targeted application of ECR heating to negative ion sources operating with molecular hydrogen (H2) and deuterium (D2). Once again, the relatively vast field is impossible to be treated in the context of this chapter, but the authors hope that the cited sources are worthy representatives. Fundamental processes governing the H− and D− ion production (destruction) are summarized in Sect. 12.2, while the extended Sect. 12.3 provides recent experimental results from ECR-driven sources and comments on them in detail. Diagnostic techniques applicable to these sources are also mentioned at the beginning of Sect. 12.3. This chapter closes with Sect. 12.4, where additional ECR sources are touched upon and negative ion-extracted currents from different sources are compared. The review is throughout supported by future-proof classic or up-to-date bibliography for further reading.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
S. Aleiferis, O. Tarvainen, P. Svarnas, M. Bacala, S. Béchu, Experimental investigation of the relation between H− negative ion density and Lyman-α emission intensity in a microwave discharge. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 49, 095203 (2016)
S. Aleiferis, P. Svarnas, S. Béchu, O. Tarvainen, M. Bacal, Production of hydrogen negative ions in an ECR volume source: Balance between vibrational excitation and ionization. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 27, 075015 (2018)
J. Asmussen, P. Mak, Control of multipolar electron cyclotron resonance discharges using internal cavity impedance matching. Rev. Sci. Intrum. 67, 1753 (1994)
M. Bacal, F. Hillion, M. Nachman, Extraction of volume-produced H− ions. Rev. Sci. Intsrum. 56, 649 (1985)
M. Bacal, Photodetachment diagnostic techniques for measuring negative ion densities and temperatures in plasmas. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 71, 3981 (2000)
M. Bacal, A.A. Ivanov Jr., M. Glass-Maujean, Y. Matsumoto, M. Nishiura, M. Sasao, M. Wada, Contribution of wall material to the vibrational excitation and negative ion formation in hydrogen negative ion sources. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 75, 1699 (2004)
M. Bacal, Physics aspects of negative in sources. Nucl. Fusion 46, S250 (2006)
M. Bacal, M. Wada, Negative hydrogen ion production mechanisms. Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 021305 (2015)
M. Bacal, M. Wada, Negative ion source operation with deuterium. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 29, 033001 (2020)
M. Bacal, M. Sasao, M. Wada, Negative ion sources. J. Appl. Phys. 129, 221109 (2021)
J.N. Bardsley, J.M. Wadehra, Dissociative attachment and vibrational excitation in low-energy collisions of electrons with H2 and D2. Phys. Rev. A 20, 1398 (1979)
R.J. Baxter, P. Hu, Insight into why the Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism is generally preferred. J. Chem. Phys. 116, 4379 (2002)
S. Béchu, A. Soum-Glaude, A. Bes, A. Lacoste, P. Svarnas, S. Aleiferis, A.A. Jr Ivanov, M. Bacal, Multi-dipolar microwave plasmas and their application to negative ion production. Phys. Plasmas 20, 101601 (2013)
S. Béchu, S. Aleiferis, J. Bentounes, L. Gavilan, V.A. Shakhatov, A. Bès, P. Svarnas, S. Mazouffre, N. de Oliviera, R. Engeln, J.L. Lemaire, Detection of rovibrationally excited molecular hydrogen in the electronic ground state via synchrotron radiation. Appl. Phys. Lett. 111, 074103 (2017)
S. Béchu, J.L. Lemaire, L. Gavilan, S. Aleiferis, V. Shakhatov, Y.A. Lebedev, D. Fombaron, L. Bonny, J. Menu, A. Bès, P. Svarnas, N. de Oliveira, Direct measurements of electronic ground state ro-vibrationally excited D2 molecules produced on ECR plasma-facing materials by means of VUV-FT absorption spectroscopy. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf. 257, 107325 (2020)
J. Bentounes, S. Béchu, F. Biggins, A. Michau, L. Gavilan, J. Menu, L. Bonny, D. Fombaron, A. Bès, A. Lebedev Yu, V.A. Shakhatov, P. Svarnas, T. Hassaine, J.L. Lemaire, A. Lacoste, Effects of the plasma-facing materials on the negative ion H− density in an ECR (2.45 GHz) plasma. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 27, 055015 (2018)
M. Cacciatore, M. Rutigliano, The semiclassical and quantum-classical approaches to elementary surface processes: Dissociative chemisorption and atom recombination on surfaces. Phys. Scr. 78, 058115 (2008)
M. Cacciatore, M. Rutigliano, Dynamics of plasma–surface processes: E–R and L–H atom recombination reactions. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 18, 023002 (2009)
M. Capitelli, M. Cacciatore, R. Celiberto, O. De Pascale, P. Diomede, F. Esposito, A. Gicquel, C. Gorse, K. Hassouni, A. Laricchiuta, S. Longo, D. Pagano, M. Rutigliano, Vibrational kinetics, electron dynamics and elementary processes in H2 and D2 plasmas for negative ion production: modelling aspects. Nucl. Fusion 46, S260 (2006)
M. Capitelli, R. Celiberto, G. Colonna, F. Esposito, C. Gorse, K. Hassouni, A. Laricchiuta, S. Longo, Formation of Vibrationally and Rotationally Excited Molecules during Atom Recombination at Surfaces, in Fundamental Aspects of Plasma Chemical Physics, (Springer, New York, 2016)
R. Celiberto, R.K. Janev, A. Laricchiuta, M. Capitelli, J.M. Wadehra, D.E. Atems, Cross section data for electron–impact inelastic processes of vibrationally excited molecules of hydrogen and its isotopes. At. Data Nucl. Data Tables 77, 161 (2001)
C. Courteille, A.M. Bruneteau, M. Bacal, Investigation of a large volume negative hydrogen ion source. Rev. Sci. Intrum. 66, 2533 (1995)
A.V. Dem’yanov, N.A. Dyatko, I.V. Kochetkov, A.P. Napartovich, A.F. Pal’, V.V. Pichugin, A.N. Starostin, Properties of a beam–driven discharge in an H2-Ar mixture. Sov. J. Plasma Phys. 11, 210 (1985)
N. de Oliveira, M. Roudjane, D. Joyeux, D. Phalippou, J.-C. Rodier, L. Nahon, High-resolution broad-bandwidth Fourier-transform absorption spectroscopy in the VUV range down to 40 nm. Nat. Photo-Dermatology 5, 149 (2011)
N. de Oliveira, D. Joyeux, D. Phalippou, J.C. Rodier, F. Polack, M. Vervloet, L. Nahon, A Fourier transform spectrometer without a beam splitter for the vacuum ultraviolet range: From the optical design to the first UV spectrum. Rev. Sci. Instr. 80, 043101 (2009)
V.D. Dougar-Jabon, A.J. Velasco, F.A. Vivas, Hydrogen negative ion production in an electron cyclotron resonance driven plasma. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69, 950 (1998)
V.D. Dougra-Jabon, D.V. Reznikov, R. Santos Mayorga, Negative hydrogen ion ECR source. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63, 2529 (1992)
V.D. Dougar-Jabon, Production of hydrogen and deuterium negative ions in an electron cyclotron resonance driven plasma. Phys. Scri. 63, 322 (2001)
M.J.J. Eerden, M.C.M. van de Sanden, D.K. Otorbaev, D.C. Schram, Cross section for the mutual neutralization reaction \( {\textrm{H}}_2^{+}+{\textrm{H}}^{-} \), calculated in a multiple–crossing Landau-Zener approximation. Phys. Rev. A. 51, 3362 (1995)
D.D. Eley, E.K. Rideal, Parahydrogen conversion on Tungsten. Nature 146, 401 (1940)
U. Fantz, Basics of plasma spectrocopy. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 15, S137 (2006)
U. Fantz, H. Falter, P. Franzen, D. Wünderlich, M. Berger, A. Lorenz, W. Kraus, P. McNeely, R. Riedl, E. Speth, Spectroscopy – A powerful diagnostic toll in source development. Nucl. Fusion 46, S297 (2006)
U. Fantz, D. Wünderlich, Franck-Condon factors, transition probabilities, and radiative lifetimes for hydrogen molecules and their isotopomeres. At. Data Nucl. Data Tables 92, 853 (2006)
A. Firdman, L.A. Kennedy, Plasma Physics and Engineering (Taylors & Francis Books Inc., New York, 2004)
R. Friedl, U. Kurutz, U. Fantz, Efficiency of Cs-free materials for negative ion production in and plasmas. AIP Conf. Proc. 1869(030022) (2017)
R. Friedl, D. Rauner, A. Heiler, U. Fantz, Dissociative recombination and its impact on the line profile of the hydrogen Balmer series. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 29, 015014 (2020)
S. Gammino, L. Celona, G. Ciavola, F. Maimone, D. Mascali, Review of high current 2.45 GHz electron cyclotron resonance sources (invited). Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 02B313 (2010)
R. Gobin, P. Auvray, M. Bacal, J. Breton, O. Delferrière, F. Harrault, A.A. Ivanov Jr., P. Svarnas, O. Tuske, Two approaches for H− ion production with 2.45 GHz ion sources. Nucl. Fusion 46, S281 (2006)
V.A. Godyak, V.I. Demidov, Probe measurements of electron-energy distributions in plasmas: What can we measure and how can we achieve reliable results? J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 44, 233001 (2011)
B. Gordiets, C.M. Ferreira, M.J. Pinheiro, A. Ricard, Self–consistent kinetic model of low-pressure N2-H2 flowing discharges: I. Volume processes. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 7, 363 (1998)
W.G. Graham, The kinetics of negative hydrogen ions in discharges. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 4, 281 (1995)
P.I. Hall, I. Čadež, M. Landau, F. Pichou, C. Schermann, Vibrational excitation of hydrogen via recombinative desorption of atomic hydrogen gas on a metal surface. Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 337 (1988)
J. Harris, B. Kasemo, On precursor mechanisms for surface reactions. Surf. Sci. 105, L281 (1981)
J.R. Hiskes, Cross sections for the vibrational excitation of the \( {\textrm{H}}_2\left({\textrm{X}}^1{\Sigma}_{\textrm{g}}^{+}\right) \) state via electron collisional excitation of the higher singlet states. J. Appl. Phys. 51, 4592 (1980)
J.R. Hiskes, A.M. Karo, Analysis of the vibrational distribution in a hydrogen discharge. Appl. Phys. Lett. 54(6), 508 (1989)
J.R. Hiskes, A.M. Karo, Recombination and dissociation of \( {\textrm{H}}_2^{+}\ \textrm{and}\ {\textrm{H}}_3^{+}\ \textrm{ions}\ \textrm{on}\ \textrm{surfaces}\ \textrm{to}\ \textrm{form}\ {\textrm{H}}_2\left({\textrm{v}}^{\prime}\right) \): Negative-ion formation on low-work-function surfaces. J. Appl. Phys. 67, 6621 (1990)
M.S. Huq, L.D. Doverspike, R.L. Champion, Electron detachment for collisions of H− and D− with hydrogen molecules. Phys. Rev. A 27(6), 2831 (1983)
B. Jackson, D. Lemoine, Eley–Rideal reactions between H atoms on metal and graphite surfaces: The variation of reactivity with substrate. J. Chem. Phys. 114, 474 (2001)
R.K. Janev, D. Reiter, U. Samm, Collision Processes in Low-Temperature Hydrogen Plasma (Forschungszentrum, Zentralbibliothek, 2003)
T. Kammler, D. Kolovos-Vellianitis, J. Küppers, A hot-atom reaction kinetic model for H abstraction from solid surfaces. Surf. Sci. 460, 91 (2000)
K.W. Kolasinski, Surface Science: Foundations of Catalysis and Nanoscience, 4th edn. (Willey, 2019)
J. Komppula, O. Tarvainen, T. Kalvas, H. Koivisto, R. Kronholm, J. Laulainen, P. Myllyperkiö, VUV irradiance measurement of a 2.45 GHz microwave-driven hydrogen discharge. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 48(365201), 365201 (2015)
U. Kurutz, U. Fantz, Investigations on caesium-free alternatives for H− formation at ion source relevant parameters. AIP Conf. Proc. 1655, 020005 (2015)
U. Kurutz, R. Friedl, U. Fantz, Investigations on Cs-free alternatives for negative ion formation in a low pressure hydrogen discharge at ion source relevant parameters. Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 59, 075008 (2017)
A. Lacoste, T. Lagarde, S. Béchu, Y. Arnal, J. Pelletier, Multi-dipolar plasmas for uniform processing: Physics, design and performance. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 11, 407 (2002)
T. Lagarde, Y. Arnal, A. Lacoste, J. Pelletier, Determination of the EEDF by Langmuir probe diagnostics in a plasma excited at ECR above a multipolar magnetic field. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 10, 181 (2001)
M.A. Lieberman, A.J. Lichtenberg, Principles of Plasma Diagnostics and Material Processing, 2nd edn. (Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2005)
A.A. Matveyev, V.P. Silakov, Kinetic processes in a highly-ionized non-equilibrium hydrogen plasma. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 4, 606 (1995)
K.A. Miller, H. Bruhns, M. Čížek, J. Eliášek, R. Cabrera-Trujillo, H. Kreckel, A.P. O’Connor, X. Urbain, D.W. Savin, Isotope effect for associative detachment: H(D)− + H(D)→H2(D2)+e−. Phys. Rev A. 86, 032714 (2012)
M. Mitrou, P. Svarnas, S. Béchu, H− and D− production efficiency in a multi-dipole ECR-plasma source as a function of gas pressure. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2244, 012007 (2022)
S. Morisset, F. Aguillon, M. Sizun, V. Sidis, Quantum dynamics of H2 formation on a graphite surface through the Langmuir Hinshelwood mechanism. J. Chem. Phys. 121, 6493 (2004)
T. Mosbach, Population dynamics of molecular hydrogen and formation of negative hydrogen ions in a magnetically confined low temperature plasma. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 14, 610 (2005)
B. Peart, K.T. Dolder, Collision between electrons and \( {\textrm{H}}_2^{+} \) ions VI. Measurements of cross sections for the simultaneous production of H+ and H−. J. Phys. B: Atom. Molec. Phys. 8, 1570 (1975)
D. Rauner, U. Kurutz, U. Fantz, Comparison of measured and modelled negative hydrogen ion densities at the ECR-discharge HOMER. AIP Conf. Proc. 1655(020017) (2015)
J.R. Roth, Industrial Plasma Engineering (Institute of Physics Publishing Ltd., London, 1995)
M. Rutigliano, M. Cacciatore, G. Billing, Hydrogen atom recombination on graphite at 10 K via the Eley-Rideal mechanism. Chem. Phys. Lett. 340, 13 (2001)
M. Rutigliano, M. Cacciatore, Eley–Rideal recombination of hydrogen atoms on a tungsten surface Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 13, 7475 (2011)
D. Spence, K.R. Lykke, Production of negative hydrogen and deuterium ions in microwave-driven ion sources, Proc. 19th Linear Accelerator Conference (LINAC), Chicago, IL, USA, TU4048, 508 (1998)
P. Svarnas, J. Breton, M. Bacal, T. Mosbach, Pressure optimization for H− ion production in an electron cyclotron resonance-driven and a filamented source. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 77, 03A532 (2006)
P. Svarnas, J. Breton, M. Bacal, R. Faulkner, Plasma electrode bias effect on the H− negative-ion density in an electron cyclotron resonance volume source. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 35, 1156 (2007)
F. Taccogna, R. Schneider, S. Longo, M. Capitelli, Modeling of a negative ion source. I. Gas kinetics and dynamics in the expansion region. Phys. Plasmas 14(73503), 073503 (2007)
A.J.C. Velasco, A.L.C. Parra, W.A.P. Serrano, Negative ion generation and isotopic effect in electron cyclotron resonance plasma. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 43, 1729 (2015)
M.C. Williamson, A.J. Lichtenberg, M.A. Lieberman, Self-consistent electron cyclotron resonance absorption in a plasma with varying parameters. J. Appl. Phys. 72, 3924 (1992)
B.J. Wood, H. Wise, Diffusion and heterogeneous reaction. II. Catalytic activity of solids for hydrogen atom recombination. J. Chem. Phys. 29, 1416 (1958)
B.J. Wood, H. Wise, Kinetics of hydrogen aton recombination on surfaces. J. Phys. Chem. 65, 1976 (1961)
W. Yang, S.N. Averkin, A.V. Khrabrov, I.D. Kaganovich, Y.N. Wang, S. Aleiferis, P. Svarnas, Benchmarking and validation of global model code for negative hydrogen ion sources. Phys. Plasmas 25, 113509 (2018)
T. Zhang, S.-X. Peng, W.-B. Wu, H.-T. Ren, J.-F. Zhang, J.-M. Wen, T.-H. Ma, Y.-X. Jiang, J. Sun, Z.-Y. Guo, J.-E. Chen, Practical 2.45-GHz microwave-driven Cs-free H− ion source developed at Peking University. Chin. Phys. B 27(105208), 105208 (2018)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Svarnas, P., Mitrou, M., Lemaire, J.L., Gavilan, L., de Oliveira, N., Béchu, S. (2023). ECR–Driven Negative Ion Sources Operating with Hydrogen and Deuterium. In: Bacal, M. (eds) Physics and Applications of Hydrogen Negative Ion Sources. Springer Series on Atomic, Optical, and Plasma Physics, vol 124. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21476-9_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21476-9_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-21475-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-21476-9
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)