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Air, Land, and Water Pollution in Africa

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African Development and Global Engagements

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Abstract

Environmental pollution and degradation have put Africa in a deteriorating state and victims have been faced with various challenges in their quest for obtaining justice. Some of the challenges arise from weak legal and institutional frameworks, judicial activism, and environmental governance issues. These obstacles are further complicated by lack of access to basic infrastructures, economic dependence on extractive activities, increased urbanisation, poverty, and illiteracy. A large population of the Continent still directly relies on supplies from the environment for daily survival. The degradation of the environment has resulted in human rights violations and the need to address these environmental issues cannot be overstated with apparent impacts on human development in Africa. In consideration of the above, the article seeks to explore the prospects of conceptual frameworks for environmental rule of law, environmental justice, and sustainable development by employing the human rights-based approach to environmental protection. The study adopts the ‘Environmental democracy’ theory. These concepts are all linked and positioned to address environmental degradation and ensure sustainable human development in Africa. Human development is dependent on the quality of the environment which people are exposed to. The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights specifically states that people deserve the right to a general satisfactory environment favourable to human development. This recognition by the Charter changes the narrative of the African environment by recognising it as a prerequisite for human development.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Abioye O. Fayiga, Mabel O. Ipinmoroti and Tait Chirenje, ‘Environmental Pollution in Africa’ (2018) Environ Dev Sustain 20, 41–73.

  2. 2.

    Funmi Abioye, ‘Advancing Human Rights Through Environmental Rule of Law in Africa’ in M. Addaney, A. Oluborode Jegede (eds.), Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020) 81.

  3. 3.

    John H. knox and Ramin Pejan, ‘Introduction’ in John H. Knox and Ramin Pejan (eds.), The Human Right to a Healthy Environment, (Cambridge University Press, 2018).

  4. 4.

    Sumudu Atapattu and Andrea Schapper, ‘Human Rights and the Environment: Key issues (Routledge 2019).

  5. 5.

    Bridget Lewis, Human Rights and Environmental Wrongs: Achieving Environmental Justice through Human Rights Law (2012) IJCJ 1(1), 65–73, 66.

  6. 6.

    Conference of Parties, Adoption of the Paris Agreement, December 12, 2015, in force November 4, 2016, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2015/19.

  7. 7.

    Carmen G. Gonzalez, ‘Human rights, environmental justice, and the North–South divide’ in Anna Grear and Louise J. Kotzé (eds.), Research Handbook on Human Rights and the Environment, (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015).

  8. 8.

    UNEP, Africa Environment Outlook 3: Summary for Policy Makers (2013).

  9. 9.

    Werner Scholtz, ‘Human rights and the Environment in the African Union Context’ in Werner Scholtz and Jonathan Verschuuren (eds.), Regional Environmental Law: Transregional Comparative Lessons in Pursuit of Sustainable Development, (Edward Elgar, 2015).

  10. 10.

    For example, Nigeria, Kenya, Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda.

  11. 11.

    Louis J. Kotzé, ‘Africa’, in Lavanya Rajamani and Jacqueline Peel (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International environmental Law, (2nd edn, Oxford University Press, 2021) 1061.

  12. 12.

    Alan Boyle, ‘Human Rights and the Environment: Where Next?’ in Ben Boer (ed), Environmental Law Dimensions of Human Rights, (Oxford University Press, 2015) 209–10.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    Abioye O. Fayiga, Mabel O. Ipinmoroti and Tait Chirenje, n 1.

  15. 15.

    Funmi Abioye, n 2, 81–2.

  16. 16.

    Ibid. See also, United Nations ‘New and Emerging Challenges in Africa Summary Report’ available at: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=502&menu=1515.

  17. 17.

    Abioye O. Fayiga, et al., n 1, 43.

  18. 18.

    United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Environmental Rule of Law: First Global Report (2019). Available at: https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/27279, accessed 24 July 2022.

  19. 19.

    Funmi Abioye, n 2, 87.

  20. 20.

    Ibid.

  21. 21.

    Environmental Rule of Law, available at: https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/environmental-rights-and-governance/what-we-do/promoting-environmental-rule-law-0, accessed 24 July 2022.

  22. 22.

    Ibid.

  23. 23.

    Funmi Abioye, n 2, 88.

  24. 24.

    See ‘The Johannesburg Principles on the Role of Law and Sustainable Development’ (adopted at the Global Judges Symposium, 2002). https://www.eufje.org/images/DocDivers/Johannesburg%20Principles.pdf, accessed 1 August 2021.

  25. 25.

    Bridget Lewis, n 5.

  26. 26.

    Robert R. Kuehn, ‘A Taxonomy of Environmental Justice’ (2000) Environmental Law Reporter 30: 10681–703.

  27. 27.

    Sumudu Atapattu and Andrea Schapper, n 4.

  28. 28.

    Robert R. Kuehn, n 26.

  29. 29.

    Stephen Stec, ‘Environmental justice through courts in countries in economic transition’, in Jonas Ebbesson and Phoebe Okowa (eds.) Environmental Law and Justice in Context, (Cambridge University Press 2009), 173.

  30. 30.

    Jonas Ebbesson, ‘Introduction: dimensions of justice in environmental law’, ibid, 2.

  31. 31.

    Rhuks Ako, ‘Mainstreaming Environmental Justice in Developing countries: Thinking Beyond Constitutional Environmental Rights’ in Chile Eboe-Osuji and Engobo Emeseh (eds.), Nigerian Yearbook of International Law, (Springer International Publishing AG, 2018).

  32. 32.

    For example, the recognition of environmental protection under the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in Section 20 remains non-justiciable in any court of law till date as it is located under Part II which is titled ‘Fundamental objectives and Directive principles of state policy’. The provisions in Chapter 2 are meant to guide the arms of government in the task of nation building and in the daily performance of the duties of governance. See Olu Awolowo, ‘Environmental Rights and Sustainable Development in Nigeria’ (2017) 10(06) OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development, 17.

  33. 33.

    WCED: Our Common Future. Report of the World Commission for Environment and Development. (Oxford University Press, 1987).

  34. 34.

    Jorge E. Viñuales, ‘Sustainable Development’ in Lavanya Rajamani and Jacqueline Peel (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International environmental Law, (2nd edn, Oxford University Press, 2021) 289.

  35. 35.

    Olu Awolowo, n 32, 21.

  36. 36.

    Alan Boyle and Catherine Redgwell, Birnie, Boyle and Redgwell’s International Law and the Environment (4th edn, Oxford University Press, 2021) 117.

  37. 37.

    Principles 3–8 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 1992.

  38. 38.

    Principles 10–17 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 1992.

  39. 39.

    Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, UN Doc. A/CONF.199/20 (26 August–4 September 2002), Resolution 1, para. 5.

  40. 40.

    Alan Boyle, n 12, 223.

  41. 41.

    Patricia Birnie, Alan Boyle, and Catherine Redgwell, International Law and the Environment (3rd edn, Oxford University Press, 2009) 125–7.

  42. 42.

    UNEP, n 8, 2. Here, we find out that there is such a notable connection between sustainable development and environmental rule of law. Costa Rica, a nation intensely dependent on natural resources achieved notable feats. The country has increased life expectancy to more than 79 years, achieved 96 per cent adult literacy, and built per capita income to almost US$9000 while setting and meeting ambitious environmental goals, including already having doubled its forest cover to over 50 per cent, and is on track to be climate neutral.

  43. 43.

    Sumudu Atapattu and Andrea Schapper, n 4, 18.

  44. 44.

    Stephen Stec, n 29, 159.

  45. 45.

    Linda Hajjar Leib, Human Rights and the Environment: Philosophical, Theoretical, and legal Perspectives (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2011) 81.

  46. 46.

    Jonathan Pickering, Karin Bäckstrand and David Schlosberg, ‘Between environmental and ecological democracy: theory and practice at the democracy-environment nexus’ (2020) Journal of environmental policy and planning 22(1), 1.

  47. 47.

    Giulia Parola, ‘Environmental democracy: a Theoretical Construction’ available online at: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.2478/9788376560144.ch1/pdf, accessed 22 August 2022.

  48. 48.

    Ben Boer (ed), Environmental Law Dimensions of Human Rights, (Oxford University Press, 2015).

  49. 49.

    R Cassin quoted by C Peter, Taking the environment seriously: The African Charter on Human and Peoples: Rights and the environment (1993) 3 Review of the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights 39. See also Morné van der Linde and Lirette Louw, ‘Considering the interpretation and implementation of Article 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights in light of the SERAC communication’, (2003) 3 African Human Rights Law Journal 167, 175.

  50. 50.

    UN HR Council, Analytical Study on the Relationship between Human Rights and the Environment, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/34 (16 December 2011), para. 6–9.

  51. 51.

    Alan Boyle, n 12, 202.

  52. 52.

    Ibid., 203.

  53. 53.

    D. Shelton, ‘Communication 155/96 (Social and Economic Rights Action Center/Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria). Case No. ACHPR/COMM/A044/1’, 96 AJIL (2002) 937, at 942.

  54. 54.

    J.B. Ojwang, Laying a Basis for Rights: Towards a Jurisprudence of Development, Inaugural Lecture Delivered Before the University of Nairobi on 9th July 1992, (University of Nairobi Press, 1992) 20.

  55. 55.

    Collins Odote, ‘Human Rights-based Approach to Environmental Protection: Kenyan, South African and Nigerian Constitutional Architecture and Experience’ in Michael Addaney and Ademola Oluborode Jegede (eds.), Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020) 392. ACHPR, Article 22(2).

  56. 56.

    See Article 3(j, k, and n), Constitutive Act of the Africa Union (2000).

  57. 57.

    Article 4(m and n).

  58. 58.

    African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul Charter) Organization of African Unity (OAU) CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982).

  59. 59.

    See the resolution passed by the United Nations General Assembly recognising the relationship between the quality of the environment and the enjoyment of human rights (UNGA Res 2398 XXII of 1968), the Declaration of the United Nations on the Human Environment (1972) which recognised the fundamental right to freedom, equality, and adequate conditions of life in an environment of a quality that permits of dignity and well-being.

  60. 60.

    Articles 24 and 22 respectively. See Werner Scholtz, n 9, 104.

  61. 61.

    Ibid., 107.

  62. 62.

    Michael Addaney, Chantelle Gloria Moyo and Thabang Ramakhula, ‘Human Rights, Regional Law, and Environment in Africa: Legal and Conceptual Foundations’ in Michael Addaney and Ademola Oluborode Jegede (eds.), Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020) 13.

  63. 63.

    Lilian Chenwi, ‘The Right to a Satisfactory, Healthy, and Sustainable Environment in the African Regional Human Rights System’ in in John H. Knox and Ramin Pejan (eds.), The Human Right to a Healthy Environment, (Cambridge University Press, 2018) 59.

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    DRC v Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda Communication 227/99 (2004), paras 87 and 95. The Commission refers to the violation of the ‘Congolese people’s rights’ and the deprivation of the right of the ‘people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’. Werner Scholtz, n 9, 110.

  66. 66.

    Centre for Minority Rights Development (kenya) and Minority Rights Group International on behalf of Endorois Welfare Council v. Kenya, Communication 276/2003 (African Commission, 2009) para. 151. See Lilian Chenwi, n 13, 63.

  67. 67.

    Morné van der Linde and Lirette Louw, n 49, 174.

  68. 68.

    Werner Scholtz, n 9, 108.

  69. 69.

    Social and Economic Rights Action Center & the Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria (Communication No. 155/96).

  70. 70.

    Ibid., para. 51.

  71. 71.

    Lilian Chenwi, n 63, 66.

  72. 72.

    Werner Scholtz, n 9, 110.

  73. 73.

    David Boyd, The Environmental Rights Revolution: A Global Study of Constitutions, Human Rights, and the Environment (UBC Press, 2012).

  74. 74.

    Louis J. Kotzé, ‘Human rights and the environment through an environmental constitutionalism lens’ in Anna Grear and Louise J. Kotzé (eds.), Research Handbook on Human Rights and the Environment, (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015) 146.

  75. 75.

    S. Gardbaum, ‘Human Rights and International Constitutionalism’ in J. Dunoff and J. Trachtman (eds.), Ruling the World? Constitutionalism, International Law, and Global Government (Cambridge University Press 2009) UCLA School of Law Research Paper No. 08-01. http://ssrn.com/abstract=1088039.

  76. 76.

    David Boyd, n 73.

  77. 77.

    David R. Boyd, ‘Constitutions, human rights, and the environment: national approaches’ in in Anna Grear and Louise J. Kotzé (eds.), Research Handbook on Human Rights and the Environment, (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015).

  78. 78.

    Section 20, 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

  79. 79.

    Rhuks Ako, n 31, 276.

  80. 80.

    Federal High Court of Nigeria in the Benin Judicial Division, suit FHC/B/CS/53/05, 14 November 2005.

  81. 81.

    (2000) 6 NWLR (Pt.660) 228.

  82. 82.

    Rhuks Ako, Environmental Justice in Developing Countries: Perspectives from Africa and the Asia–Pacific (Routledge, 2013).

  83. 83.

    See Section 24 of the 1996 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa.

  84. 84.

    Kotzé L and Du Plessis A, ‘Some Observations on Fifteen Years of Environmental Rights Jurisprudence in South Africa’ (2010) 3 (1) J Ct Innovation 157–176.

  85. 85.

    Jan Glazewski, ‘The Rule of Law: Opportunities for Environmental Justice in the New Democratic Order’ in D. McDonald (eds.), Environmental Justice in South Africa, (OUP 2002) 171–198.

  86. 86.

    See Director: Mineral Development Gauteng Region v. Save the Vaal Environment (1996) 1 All SA 2004 (T) 20. See Lavanya Rajamani and Jacqueline Peel (eds.), n 11, 1057–8.

  87. 87.

    Constitution of Kenya, 2010.

  88. 88.

    See Funmi Abioye, n 2, 100.

  89. 89.

    eKLR (2013).

  90. 90.

    Ibid., para. 46.

  91. 91.

    Ibid., para. 50.

  92. 92.

    Funmi Abioye, n 2, 101.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., 102.

  94. 94.

    Brewsters Caiphas Soyapi, ‘The Judiciary and Environmental Protection in Zimbabwe’ in M. Addaney, A. Oluborode Jegede (eds.), Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020) 358. See for more information, COPAC National Statistical Report Version 1: Second All Stakeholders Conference, October 2012 (COPAC, 2012) 189.

  95. 95.

    Section 73 of the Zimbabwean Constitution 2013. Sub-Section 2 further mandates the state to take reasonable legislative and other measures, within the limits of the resources available to it, to achieve the progressive realisation of the rights set out in this section.

  96. 96.

    HC 11,552, 2003.

  97. 97.

    Most of the environment-related cases discussed below were instituted by the Zimbabwe Environmental Law Association (ZELA) in its capacity as an environmental NGO.

  98. 98.

    Brewsters Caiphas Soyapi, n 94, 364.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., 362.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., 365.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., 374.

  102. 102.

    The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia 1995.

  103. 103.

    Desalegn Amsalu, ‘Implementing Human-Rights-Related Environmental Obligations in Ethiopia’ in M. Addaney, A. Oluborode Jegede (eds.), Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020) 282.

  104. 104.

    Louis J. Kotzé, n 74, 145. See also, C. Gearty, ‘Do Human Rights Help of Hinder Environmental Protection?’ (2010) Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 1(1), 7–22.

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  1. Department of Jurisprudence and Private Law, Faculty of Law, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

    Ayobami Oluwaseun Aluko

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Aluko, A. (2023). Air, Land, and Water Pollution in Africa. In: Adeniran, A.I. (eds) African Development and Global Engagements. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21283-3_18

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