Abstract
Although Abdul Aziz Said had published writings on topics related to Islam and Sufism since the 1970s, themes pertaining to Islamic peace studies and Islamic-Western dialogue became increasingly central to his academic work after he became the first occupant of the Mohammed Said Farsi Chair of Islamic Peace in 1996. The writings selected for this chapter reflect his important contributions to these subject areas, underscoring multiple paradigms for peacemaking within Islam, the potential for dynamic modes of Islamic interpretation, and the need for a “new story” in Islamic-Western relations. Significantly, his approach to these topics mirrored his past emphasis on the importance of allowing cultural space for non-Western peoples to articulate their own values and visions, within a broader context of global interaction and dialogue.
Abdul Aziz Said, the primary author of the writings presented in this chapter, founded the International Peace and Conflict Resolution program at American University’s School of International Service and occupied the Mohamed Said Farsi Chair of Islamic Peace from 1997 to 2015. Nathan C. Funk (Associate Professor at Conrad Grebel University College and the University of Waterloo) and Meena Sharify-Funk (Associate Professor at Wilfrid Laurier University) received Said’s guidance while selecting these writings and then edited them for optimal fit within this volume.
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Notes
- 1.
This is the classic argument of proponents of power politics, or political realism. Where liberalism seeks to coordinate the policies of nation states, increase provision for certain basic collective or humanitarian goods (e.g., peacekeeping, disaster relief, development, civil and political rights) and secure free competition in a global economy, political realism emphasizes the prerogatives and perceived vulnerabilities of each sovereign nation state. According to political realism, there can be no universal or universalizable set of human values; the denizens of each state will inevitably hold their own values most sacred.
- 2.
Metaphors from classical political economy and modern economics thrive in the modern discipline of international relations. The greatest concern with such metaphors is manifest among those who cite the need for security, a putatively private good, as more pressing and more attainable than concerns for such public goods as disarmament, ecological balance, and sustainable development. Neorealists liken states to firms, maximizing their own profits. See Gilpin (1981).
- 3.
According to the increasingly popular democratic peace hypothesis, Western-style democracies do not make war against one another. Their behavior towards regimes that do not fit the Western pluralist model is often less peaceful.
- 4.
Payne (1995) argues that the United States has been more likely to rely on force in its relations with “culturally distant” countries than in its relations with countries that are perceived to be more similar in their cultural characteristics.
- 5.
A growing number of Western scholars have begun to question the “growth ethic” underlying the liberal democratic paradigm. In particular they have suggested that organizing communities and ecosystems for maximum production is a highly normative (and not merely scientific) endeavor. Other values besides net growth need to be integrated into the model of development, particularly if the integrity of human and ecological communities is to be preserved. See Berry (1988), Korten (1995), Wachtel (1989).
- 6.
In the words of Mona Abul-Fadl, “it is wajh Allah, the Countenance of Allah, which [the sincere Muslim] seeks.... The serene and contented self, al Nafs al Radiya al Mardiya, and the self which has found its innermost sense of peace, al Nafs al Mutma’inna are anchored in that infinite and unassailable source from which they draw” (1987, p. 25).
- 7.
From the beginning, Islamic rule was expected to have a contractual basis. The sovereign was to exercise power representing both the will of the community and the traditions of the Prophet. After experiences with political turmoil, de facto monarchy, and invasion, some Muslim thinkers began to preoccupy themselves with duties of obedience to a sovereign who fulfilled certain basic minimum requirements with respect to the Shariah.
- 8.
John L. Esposito, John Obert Voll, Yvonne Haddad, and many others approach Islam in this manner.
- 9.
See Said (1978), Orientalism. We should note, of course, that the tendency to project unclaimed aspects of the “self” upon the “other” is probably a universal human tendency, and that some Western “orientalists” (e.g., Louis Massignon, Henry Corbin) have produced remarkably perceptive and insightful works on Islamic spirituality and Islamic civilization.
- 10.
In the waning days of the Cold War, Bernard Lewis, a learned but controversial historian, went so far as to proclaim a “clash of civilizations” – “the perhaps irrational but surely historic reaction of an ancient rival against our Judeo-Christian heritage, our secular present, and the worldwide expansion of both” (1990, Sept., p. 60). See also Pipes (1995).
- 11.
- 12.
See, for example, Zelikow/Zoellick (1998).
- 13.
Marshall Hodgson’s overall approach in the three-volume series, The venture of Islam (1974) underscores the dynamism and multiformity as well as the underlying consistencies of Islam. John L. Esposito and John O. Voll emphasize the flexibility of the Islamic repertoire in their work, Islam and democracy (1996).
- 14.
- 15.
Comte believed that definitive, generic, and transhistorical knowledge about collective human behavior is attainable, and that such knowledge is superior to all other forms of knowledge about human beings and their place in the universe. In positing a methodology through which the human mind might attain to pure theory capable of encompassing the dynamism of social life, Comte de-emphasized the subtle operations of human self-awareness and agency, through which human beings continually participate in the weaving of those webs of meaning that define and shape their reality. Moreover, his pre-analytical vision ruled out the contemplation of ineffable mysteries as a valid preoccupation of serious minds.
- 16.
In addition, the Fellowship of Reconciliation has produced articles on Islam and peace (see the Islam, Peace and Nonviolence issue of Fellowship, 60[5–6], May/June 1994); conferences on the subject have also been convened in association with Nonviolence International, the Mohamed Said Farsi Chair of Islamic Peace, and the Center for Global Peace at American University in Washington, D.C.
- 17.
Falk (1997) unequivocally defends the right of Muslims to equitable participation as Muslims in the contemporary world order, and suggests that contemporary Islamic movements manifest resistance to cultural as well as political marginalization. Salla (1997) has advanced a similar argument, suggesting that there is a need to move beyond both stereotypical “essentializations” and fragmentary models based on historical contingency, toward representations of Islam as a discourse that critiques the dominant liberal democratic paradigm in a manner similar to many other religious discourses.
- 18.
A longer version of this chapter was presented at the conference “Islam and Ecology” (May 1998) at the Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, and was later published in Islam and ecology: A bestowed trust (Foltz et al. 2003).
- 19.
“In most of their secret talks there is no good: but if one exhorts to a deed of charity or goodness or conciliation between people (secrecy is permissible): To him who does this, seeking the good pleasure of Allah, We shall soon give a reward of the highest (value)” (Qur’an, 4:114).
- 20.
“To each among you have We prescribed a Law and an Open Way. If Allah had so willed, He would have made you a single People, but (His Plan is) to test you in what He hath given you: so strive as in a race in all virtues. The goal of you all it to Allah; It is He that will show you the truth of the matters in which ye dispute” (Qur’an 5:48).
- 21.
“There is no special merit of an Arab over a non-Arab, nor a non-Arab over an Arab, nor a White man over a Black man, nor a Black man over a White, except by righteousness and piety.” Cited in Abu Laila (1991, p. 63).
- 22.
Murata and Chittick discuss the levels of meaning associated with the words M(m)uslim and I(i)slam in their accessible work, The Vision of Islam (1994).
- 23.
For an introduction to ihsan, see Murata/Chittick (1994).
- 24.
“Say: ‘If ye do love Allah, follow me: Allah will love you and forgive you your sins: for Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful” (Qur’an 3:31).
- 25.
“For the pious Muslim, islam shows itself everywhere in the universe – in the blood circulation, the movement of the stars in their orbits, in the growth of plants – everything is bound by islam...” (Schimmel 1994, p. 255).
- 26.
Religious tolerance is built into Islamic precepts, which designate the “People of the Book” as protected peoples. Though Muslims have often regarded non-Abrahamic religions with some ambivalence, such contemporary authorities on Islam as Seyyed Hossein Nasr emphatically include Buddhism, Hinduism, and Native American traditions within the circle of divine religions.
- 27.
“It may be that Allah will establish friendship between you and those whom ye (now) hold as enemies. For Allah has power (over all things); and Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful” (Qur’an 60:7).
- 28.
The tendency to elevate reason and denigrate passion was particularly characteristic of Greek thought. In contrast, the Qur’an emphasizes spiritual purification. Abraham, the one whom God “rendered pure in this world” (Qur’an 2:130), prayed for his descendants: “Our Lord! send amongst them a Messenger of their own, who shall rehearse Thy Signs to them and instruct them in Scripture and Wisdom, and purify them: For Thou art the Exalted in Might, the Wise” (Qur’an 2:129).
- 29.
Evil has no essential existence in Islam; it is distance from the Source, a lack of essence which brings destructiveness and loss.
- 30.
The greatest human privilege is the capability to grasp the unity of existence. The human capability for knowledge of the most profound variety is compatible with the idea of a tawhidi episteme, as articulated by Dr. Mona Abul-Fadl. Abul-Fadl (1988) suggests that the greatest gift Islam can offer to the world is a truly integral perspective which renders the truths of direct experience (including mysticism and theosophy), philosophy, and science complementary rather than contradictory.
- 31.
There is a symbiotic relationship between humans and their natural environment; the blessings of existence are a sign of God’s grace, for “His are all things in the heavens and on earth” (Qur’an 2:255).
- 32.
The Qur’an contrasts justice (adl) with wrongdoing (zulm), “usually defined as putting a thing in the wrong place.... [P]eople can and do wrong themselves every time they put something in the wrong place. They distort their own natures, and they lead themselves astray” (Murata/Chittick 1994, p. 113).
- 33.
While ecology was rarely an issue debated in the same manner as the political and religious legitimacy of various regimes and movements, the classical Islamic tradition nonetheless provided a context for discussing such unconventional subjects as the rights of animals. See Goodman (1978).
- 34.
“So delicious is the juice of faithfulness to You throughout the ages, that it grants physical soundness and intellectual health; it restores the environment by conscious living; it opens the soul with truth” (Ali 1991, pp. 37–38).
- 35.
The practice of Sufism is inspired by the faith that God guides unto Himself those who turn to Him – “Those who believe, and whose hearts find satisfaction in the remembrance of Allah: for without doubt in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find satisfaction” (Qur’an 13:28). Peace in the world is a reflection of peace in the inner worlds of human beings, and is founded on spiritual principles.
- 36.
The breadth of heart represented by the Sufi traditions of Islam is suggested by Ibn al-‘Arabi’s verses: “My heart has become capable of every form: it is a pasture for gazelles and a convent for Christian monks, and a temple for idols and the pilgrim’s Ka‘ba and the tables of the Tora and the book of the Koran. I follow the religion of Love: whatever way Love’s camels take, that is my religion and my faith” (Ibn al-‘Arabi/Nicholson 1978, p. 67).
- 37.
This sense of spontaneous loyalty is aptly expressed by the Persian poet Saadi: “I am joyous with the cosmos, for the cosmos receives its joy from Him; I love the world, for the world belongs to Him” (Eaton 1993).
- 38.
The equation of September 11 with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor during World War II (December 7, 1941) is a clear example of how experiences of one traumatic event can become the basis for stories about a new trial.
- 39.
- 40.
- 41.
As the Cold War waned, the historian Lewis (1990) proposed that Islam would become the next major rival of America and of Western civilization in general. He predicted a “clash of civilizations” – “the perhaps irrational but surely historic reaction of an ancient rival against our Judeo-Christian heritage, our secular present, and the worldwide expansion of both” (1990, p. 60). Political scientist Huntington (1993) embellished on this prediction in his much-debated article, “The Clash of Civilizations.”
- 42.
Huntington’s credentials as a Harvard University professor and an advisor to past U.S. administrations inclined many to view his thesis as indicative of American perceptions more generally.
- 43.
- 44.
- 45.
Emphasis in original.
- 46.
- 47.
As studies of popular opinion in the Arab world have indicated, the belief that Islam is under attack is a factor that correlates strongly with support for terrorism. See United States Institute of Peace, “Support for Terrorism Linked to Feelings of Threat” (2006); Fair and Shepherd, “Who Supports Terrorism?” (2006).
- 48.
In “The Clash of Civilizations is Really One of Emotions,” Moisi (2006) provides a quite compelling explanation for these dynamics, characterized as they are by superficial jingoism and increasing hostility: “In our globalized age, we have lost the privilege – and, paradoxically, the virtue – of ignorance. We all see how others react, but without the minimal historical and cultural tools necessary to decipher those reactions. Globalization has paved the way to a world dominated by the dictatorship of the emotions – and of ignorance.”
- 49.
Rauf (2004) offers the following formula: “What’s right with America and what’s right with Islam have a lot in common. At their highest levels, both worldviews reflect an enlightened recognition that all of humankind shares a common Creator…” (p. 282).
- 50.
Although historical comparisons offer at best limited guidance for dealing with current disputes over gender norms, many Muslim commentators have found it meaningful to note that the rights accorded to women by early Islamic law compared quite favorably with those granted not just by pre-Islamic traditions of the Near East, but also by the more or less contemporaneous legal systems and customs of Rome, South Asia, and Africa. See, for example, Goolam (2006), Hanafi (2002). Many present-day Muslim feminists, such as Azizah al-Hibri (1997), argue that Islam itself offers powerful correctives for the patriarchal habits of traditional Muslim societies.
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Said, A.A., Funk, N.C., Sharify-Funk, M. (2022). Making Peace with Islam. In: Funk, N.C., Sharify-Funk, M. (eds) Abdul Aziz Said: A Pioneer in Peace, Intercultural Dialogue, and Cooperative Global Politics. Pioneers in Arts, Humanities, Science, Engineering, Practice, vol 26. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13905-5_9
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