Abstract
The Shanghai Jewish Youth Association School, more commonly called the Kadoorie School, was one of the most significant cultural creations of the refugee community in Shanghai. The Kadoorie School represents a close collaboration between the resident Baghdadi and much larger, newly arrived Central European Jewish communities, addressing the traditional Jewish emphasis on education. This chapter traces the history of the School, from its beginnings as a club for refugee children in 1937, to the founding of the English-language School in 1939, to its dissolution in 1949 as most refugees left Shanghai. The School functioned as a cultural center for the entire refugee community during and after the War, unimpeded by the Japanese creation of the Designated Area in 1943. First-hand descriptions of the School and its teachers used in the chapter come from interviews with former students.
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Notes
- 1.
Mark Wischnitzer, “Jewish Emigration from Germany 1933–1938,” Jewish Social Studies 2 (1940): 23–44; Louise London, “British government policy and Jewish refugees 1933–1945,” Patterns of Prejudice 23 (1989): 26–43. It is difficult to find reliable numbers about how emigration proceeded to individual destinations on a monthly, or even on a yearly basis. Of the total during 1933–1938, about one-third went to other places in Europe, where most were later captured by the Germans.
- 2.
The total number of refugees from the Nazis who arrived in Shanghai is uncertain and widely varying estimates can be found. The North China Daily News reported 15,000 had arrived by mid-August 1939: “Shanghai Municipal Council to Ban Jewish Refugees,” August 15, 1939. Most scholars agree that about 18,000 arrived in total, which includes about 1000 from Poland and Lithuania, who arrived in 1941. Of the German speakers, only about 2000 were able to enter Shanghai after September 1939, due to new restrictive rules about immigration. See Steve Hochstadt, “Shanghai: a Last Resort for Desperate Jews,” in Frank Caestecker and Bob Moore, eds., Refugees from Nazi Germany and the Liberal European States (New York, Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2009), 109–121.
- 3.
The 1944 Japanese census of foreigners in the Dee Jay Lao District theoretically covered nearly all refugees from the Nazis. But comparisons with other sources show that the documents from 1944 list only about three-quarters of known refugees. Using the age data from the census, I calculated how many 5- to 16-year-olds would have arrived by 1939 and added one-third to account for the incompleteness of the census. The result is only an approximation, but a useful one. The census lists have been copied and converted into an Excel file, both accompaniments to the book edited by Georg Armbrüster, Michael Kohlstruck, and Sonja Mühlberger, Exil Shanghai 1938–1947: Jüdisches Leben in der Emigration (Berlin: Hentrich & Hentrich, 2000). The age distribution of the refugees was heavily skewed towards adults in their 40s.
- 4.
For example, the Eisfelder family opened the Café Louis on Ward Road, which remained a popular gathering spot throughout the war. See Horst Peter Eisfelder, Chinese Exile: My years in Shanghai and Nanking (Caulfield South, Australia: Ayotaynu Foundation, 2004).
- 5.
The theatrical efforts of the refugees have been catalogued in two books: the general study by Michael Philipp, Nicht einmal einen Thespiskarren: Exiltheater in Shanghai 1939–1947 (Hamburg: Hamburger Arbeitsstelle für deutsche Exilliteratur, 1996); and the reprinting of two original plays produced in Shanghai written by Hans Schubert and Mark Siegelberg, in an edition edited by Michael Philipp and Wilfried Seywald, “Die Masken fallen”—“Fremde Erde”: Zwei Dramen aus der Emigration nach Shanghai 1939–1947 (Hamburg: Hamburger Arbeitsstelle für deutsche Exilliteratur, 1996).
- 6.
David Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews: The Jewish Refugee Community of Shanghai, 1938–1945 (Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Publishing House, 1988), 22.
- 7.
There may have been a few individual exceptions on the basis of personal and social connections. A 1938 photograph of the students at the private McTyeire School for girls in Shanghai shows only Chinese faces: “McTyeire: The School for China’s Daughters,” Historic Shanghai. http://www.historic-shanghai.com/mctyeire-school-for-chinas-daughters. Accessed February 28, 2019.
- 8.
Maisie J. Meyer, From the Rivers of Babylon to the Whangpoo: A Century of Sephardi Jewish Life in Shanghai (Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2003), 127.
- 9.
The rest lived in the more prosperous districts of central Shanghai, including my grandparents, whose apartment on Bubbling Well Road was around the corner from the SJS. Data on where refugees lived in “Stateless refugees—Removal to the Designated Area,” Shanghai Municipal Police, May 22, 1943, Shanghai Municipal Police (SMP) files, 1894–1945, D5422©. The SMP files are available on microfilm.
- 10.
The few general histories of Jews in Shanghai, whether focused on the refugees or on the earlier Jewish communities, offer only a few sketchy details about the Kadoorie School. The first major work on the refugees, Kranzler’s Japanese, Nazis & Jews, has a few pages on the school. Maisie Meyer’s study of Kadoorie’s Baghdadi community, From the Rivers of Babylon to the Whangpoo, spends five pages on Horace Kadoorie’s work with refugees. Books that focus on the Russian community, which had less connection with the School, naturally offer less: Rena Krasno, Strangers Always: A Jewish Family in Wartime Shanghai (Pacific View Press, 1992); and Marcia Renders Ristaino, Port of Last Resort: The Diaspora Communities of Shanghai (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2004).
- 11.
Two sources for most personal data about Hartwich are a phone interview with Hartwich’s niece, Margit Diamond, who lived in Pittsburgh, conducted by the author on November 1, 2012; and the research of Peter Schweitzer, the great-grandson of Lucie and Ernst’s uncle Franz Furstenheim, communicated by email, March 29, 2020.
- 12.
Hans Cohn remembers transferring to her school, which was nearer to his home, in 1936: email to the author, March 18, 2013. For more on Cohn, who became a cantor, see https://www.lexm.uni-hamburg.de/object/lexm_lexmperson_00006942. Accessed September 22, 2021.
- 13.
Email from Hans Jorysz to the author, May 14, 2013.
- 14.
Hans Cohn, Risen from the Ashes: Tales of a Musical Messenger (Lanham, MD: Hamilton Books, 2006), 15–19.
- 15.
“Holocaust survivor recalls Kristallnacht, Jews of Shanghai,” Pittsburgh Jewish Chronicle, November 6, 2017, accessed September 1, 2018: https://jewishchronicle.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-survivor-recalls-kristallnacht-jews-of-shanghai/.
- 16.
“Kadoorie Agricultural High School,” Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadoorie_Agricultural_High_School. Accessed September 1, 2018.
- 17.
Amelia Allsop, “The Lost Records Revealed: Hong Kong Heritage Project’s Jewish Collection,” Asian Jewish Life, Winter 2010–2011. Kadoorie himself described the first few years of the SJYA in a typed manuscript, “Shanghai Jewish Youth Association, Founded February 1937, Its Foundation and a Short History of Its Eighteen Activities,” 1940, Hong Kong Heritage Project (HKHP), Jewish Collection, File Box E02/18. The materials in the HKHP, which was created by the Kadoorie family, now headquartered in Hong Kong, were kindly made available to the author by its archivist Amelia Allsop.
- 18.
Meyer, From the Rivers of Babylon to the Whangpoo, 143, 213, 280 note 74.
- 19.
Kadoorie, “Shanghai Jewish Youth Association,” 5.
- 20.
These activities are described in diary entries written by Yenta Kleiman, archived in the HKHP, Jewish Collection, File Box E02/18. The SJYA also produced a Song Book which appears to contain mainly American folk standards, such as “John Brown’s Body,” “Way Down Upon the Swanee River,” and “Old Black Joe.” See also Meyer, From the Rivers of Babylon to the Whangpoo, 143.
- 21.
Interview with Arnold Fuchs, Gorham, ME, April 18, 1997, Shanghai Jewish Community Oral History Project, 9. Fuchs’ memories of this school in the spring of 1939 are the only evidence the author has found thus far for this initial effort at organized education by the SJYA.
The Shanghai Jewish Community Oral History Project (SJCOHP) consists of 99 interviews conducted by the author with Shanghai Jews, mostly former refugees, housed in the Muskie Archives at Bates College in Lewiston, Maine. Transcripts of many of these interviews are available online at https://scarab.bates.edu/shanghai_oh.
The Heime were mass accommodations for about 2500 refugees who could not afford private housing. About 700 people lived in the Chaoufoong Road Heim in 1939: “Jewish Refugee Camps,” Shanghai Municipal Police file D5422c, May 19, June 24, and August 5, 1939.
- 22.
Paula Parks met her in Pei-tai-ho, where she was also acting as a nanny for a French family: interview with Paula Parks, Coconut Creek, FL, April 19, 1991, SJCOHP, 45.
- 23.
Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews, 390–391.
- 24.
Letters in HKHP, Jewish Collection, Box File E02/18.
- 25.
Article in Der Mitarbeiter, no. 5,11, December 20, 1940, reproduced in Irene Eber, ed., Jewish Refugees in Shanghai: A Selection of Documents. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2018), 514. The staff at the School is pictured in a photograph from 1941 of Lucie Hartwich and 19 teachers: photograph 22869, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC, courtesy of Hannah (Mansbacher) Weill.
- 26.
Meyer, From the Rivers of Babylon to the Whangpoo, 127, 298 n.120; Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews, 392. Kranzler and others cite a maximum enrollment of 600.
- 27.
Ristaino, Port of Last Resort, 122.
- 28.
Horace Kadoorie had already contracted with Wilhelm Deman to run a Junior Club at the Kinchow Road School in 1939: untranscribed interview with Joan Deman, Chicago, 1995, SJCOHP.
- 29.
Letter from Lawrence Kadoorie to L. Raphaely, April 16, 1941, and letter from Horace Kadoorie to Lawrence Kadoorie, June 20, 1941, HKHP, Jewish Collection, Box File E02/18; Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews, 404 note 18.
- 30.
About one-quarter of the Polish refugees were yeshiva students, based on the 1944 Japanese census in Hongkou.
- 31.
On the importance of religion for the Polish refugees, see Vera Schwarcz, In the Crook of the Rock—Jewish Refuge in a World Gone Mad: The Chaya Leah Walkin Story (Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2018).
- 32.
Steve Hochstadt, Exodus to Shanghai: Stories of Escape from the Third Reich (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 102.
- 33.
This was told to the author by Sonja Mühlberger, who was born just after her parents arrived in 1939 and was a student after the war: interview with Sonja Mühlberger, Berlin, January 28, 1995, SJCOHP, 7. She also remembered breaking this rule with some other German girlfriends.
- 34.
Interview with Ilse Lehmeier and Karin Pardo, Chicago, September 5, 1993, SJCOHP, 9; Hochstadt, Exodus to Shanghai, 80.
- 35.
The best source for what subjects were taught in various grade levels are the scattered report cards which have been preserved by former students.
- 36.
Ernest Culman in Hochstadt, Exodus to Shanghai, 105–106; interview with Erwin Landau, Vienna, May 5, 1995, SJCOHP, 3.
- 37.
Relationships between refugees and Chinese are explored in an article translated into Chinese: Steve Hochstadt, “Refugees and Natives in Shanghai: The Portrait of the Chinese in Jewish Refugee Memory,” in Representations and Identities in the Jewish Diaspora. Essays in Honor of Professor Xu Xin, ed. Song Lihong, 30–48 (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2018).
- 38.
Interview with Joan Deman. Helene Plohn was a well-known author of books about children’s education. Her memoir can be found at: Plohn, Helene (née Goldbaum)—Vienna. My experiences in Vienna and Shanghai 1938–1947. January 1960 Eyewitness Accounts: Doc. No. P.II.b. No. 1165: 8 pages. Testaments to the Holocaust: Series One: Archives of the Wiener Library, London, Reel Listing.
- 39.
On the disdainful attitude of the political leaders of Western nations in Shanghai toward Jewish refugees, see Hochstadt, “Shanghai: a Last Resort for Desperate Jews.”
- 40.
Letter from Horace Kadoorie to L. Raphaely in Cape Town, South Africa, July 16, 1941, HKHP, Jewish Collection, Box File E02/18.
- 41.
The sources the author has found thus far offer no more information about the building of the new school. The selection of the site, architectural decisions, and its financing require further research.
- 42.
Ralph Hirsch in Hochstadt, Exodus to Shanghai, 116; interview with Martin Beutler, Berlin, June 29, 1995, SJCOHP, 17–18; interview with Walter Dawid, Vienna, May 4, 1995, SJCOHP, 3; Jerry Lindenstraus, Eine unglaubliche Reise: Von Ostpreußen über Schanghai und Kolumbien nach New York, Jüdische Familiengeschichte 1929-1999 (Konstanz, Germany: Hartung-Gorre Verlag, 1999), 25.
- 43.
Interview with Ernest E. Culman, Rockville, MD, October 18, 1997, SJCOHP, 3–4. In a communication with the author, Culman wrote that he believes the cantor was Max Warschauer, who was the chief cantor of the Jüdische Gemeinde and regularly held services at the Kadoorie School: see Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews, 426.
- 44.
Trude Reisman’s father David Zalusky paid her fees and sponsored two other children at the SJYA School: Interview with Paul and Gertrude Reisman, Monroe, CT, May 7, 1997, SJCOHP, 40.
- 45.
Typescript manuscript in possession of the author by Lisl (Rosner) Gerber, 12. Liselotte Rosner was hired as kindergarten teacher at age 17 about 1943.
- 46.
Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews, 391; Ralph Hirsch in Hochstadt, Exodus to Shanghai, 116.
- 47.
Email from Ralph Hirsch, December 16, 2010.
- 48.
For a full evaluation of Japanese treatment of Jews in Shanghai, see Steve Hochstadt, “Japanese and Jews In Shanghai”, forthcoming in Modern Judaism—A Journal of Jewish Ideas and Experience (2022).
- 49.
Japanese was also added at the Shanghai Jewish School: Evelyn Pike Rubin, Ghetto Shanghai (New York: Shengold Publishers, 1993), 105.
- 50.
Email from Ralph Hirsch, March 12, 2014. Hirsch became a city planner in Philadelphia and collected documentation on the Shanghai refugees as head of the Council on the Jewish Experience in Shanghai.
- 51.
The rapid failure of Hoshino was also related by Erwin Landau, interview, 3.
- 52.
A student in the audience saw this happen and related the story later in an interview: Susanna Goldfarb, Oral History Transcript. http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/HolocaustSurvivors/pdfs/Goldfarb.pdf. Accessed December 8, 2018.
- 53.
Interview with Margit Diamond.
- 54.
Interview with Ernest Culman, 27.
- 55.
Interview with Suse Stiassnie, Vienna, May 6, 1995, SJCOHP, 2, 6–7.
- 56.
Interview with Rita Opitz, Berlin, June 26, 1995, SJCOHP, 22–23.
- 57.
Interview with Heinz Grünberg, Vienna, May 31, 1995, SJCOHP, 13.
- 58.
Witting has a letter on SJYA stationery, dated November 25, 1940.
- 59.
Here are the names of all the teachers the author has encountered, with subject listed if noted in the sources. Some taught at only one of the incarnations of the Kadoorie School: Miss Brissel, Mrs M. Christensen (English), Arnold Epstein (history), Martin Epstein (singing), Siegfried Erdstein (rhythmic gymnastics), Louise Fischer (history), Marianne Fränkel, Günter Gassenheimer (science, math, religion), Otto Glogau (physics), Ms Hanin, Miss Harrison, Ms Hayward, Miss Hoshino (Japanese), Mrs Jourdan (French), Miss Kantor (English), brothers Leon Kleinerman and Marc Kleinerman (English), Mrs Lebrun, Rosa Lesser, Felicia Lewinsky Sarne (kindergarten), Hannah Manasseh (kindergarten), Sonia Marohovsky, Leo Meyer (athletics), Mrs Molner, Jane Oystragh, Inge Pikarski, Mr. Plaschke, Helene Plohn (kindergarten), Gerhard Posner (Japanese), Sonia Radbil, H. Rosenberg, Liselotte Rosner (kindergarten, history), H. Sattler, Michael Schermann (art), Rosa Sonnenschein, Miss Sussman, Esther Szekeres (science), Miss Tikotzky, Albert Wesel (Hebrew and religion), Erwin Wolff (French). Paul Salomon was the School physician.
- 60.
Gassenheimer was born in 1913 in Hildburghausen in Thüringen. He was trained as a teacher at the Israelitische Lehrerbildungsanstalt in Würzburg. He came to San Francisco in 1947, changed his name to Gates, and became a rabbi at Temple Israel. He died in 1981: email to the author from Gretel Gates, his widow, February 8, 2013.
- 61.
Culman in Hochstadt, Exodus to Shanghai, 106–107; interview with Walter Schlesinger, Perchtoldsdorf, Austria, May 7, 1995, SJCOHP, 49–50.
- 62.
Interview with Rita Opitz, 23.
- 63.
Sigmund Tobias, Strange Haven: A Jewish Childhood in Wartime Shanghai (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2009), chapter 4.
- 64.
Interview with Martin Beutler, 13.
- 65.
Interview with Ruth Sumner, Tampa, FL, April 17, 1991, SJCOHP, 11.
- 66.
Irene Eber, Wartime Shanghai and the Jewish Refugees from Central Europe: Survival, Co-Existence and Identity in a Multi-Ethnic City (Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2012), 184; Weiyan Meng, “Willi Tonn: Fighting Scholar of Shanghai,” Sino-Judaica: Occasional Papers of the Sino-Judaic Institute, v. 2 (1995), 115.
- 67.
Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews, 394–396; E. Lebon, “Refugee University,” Our Life, no. 184, 3, reproduced in Eber, Jewish Refugees in Shanghai, 543; Cohn, Risen from the Ashes, 30.
- 68.
Culman in Hochstadt, Exodus to Shanghai, 168.
- 69.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, January 12, 1946, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 70.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, December 17, 1945, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 71.
Meyer, From the Rivers of Babylon to the Whangpoo, 214.
- 72.
Stories about the Tikvah Club and the JCC come from a variety of interviews in the SJCOHP: Charles Klotzer, Chicago, September 4, 1993; Robert Langer, Philadelphia, October 17, 1999; Ernest Culman; and Arnold Fuchs.
- 73.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, March 17, 1946, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 74.
Not every refugee family wished to leave. My grandfather Josef Hochstädt had established a solid medical practice when he and my grandmother Amalia Hochstädt arrived in 1939 and resumed their comfortable life in 1945.
- 75.
Many former Shanghaiers report that the Nationalists spread horror stories about the advancing Red Army designed to frighten foreigners out of their sympathy for the Communists. The sudden appearance of anti-colonial attitudes among the Shanghai population is reported by Walter Dawid in Steve Hochstadt, Shanghai-Geschichten: Die jüdische Flucht nach China (Teetz, Germany: Hentrich und Hentrich, 2007), 167–168.
- 76.
Letter from Hartwich to Furstenheim, New York, December 17, 1945.
- 77.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, April 17, 1946, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 78.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, September 4, 1946, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 79.
The SJS was also able to publish a newspaper, Hakol (The Voice).
- 80.
Ilie Wacs became a world-famous clothes designer. He and his sister wrote a memoir: Deborah Strobin and Ilie Wacs, An Uncommon Journey: From Vienna to Shanghai to America–A Brother and Sister Escape to Freedom During World War II (Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Books, 2011).
- 81.
Future 1, September 1947, 21, and December 1947, 9–11, 15, 17, Sino-Judaic Institute Collection, Box 5, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford, CA.
- 82.
Steve Hochstadt, “Flucht ins Ungewisse: Die Jüdische Emigration nach Shanghai,” in Exil Shanghai 1938–1947: Jüdisches Leben in der Emigration, Georg Armbrüster, Michael Kohlstruck, und Sonja Mühlberger, eds. (Berlin: Hentrich & Hentrich), 27.
- 83.
Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews, 606.
- 84.
Meyer, From the Rivers of Babylon to the Whangpoo, 298 note 129; interview with Martin Beutler, 17.
- 85.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, January 22, 1947, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 86.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, June 19, 1947, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 87.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, January 7, 1948, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer. The author has found no firm date for her departure, but Rosa Sonnenschein, a teacher at the school born about 1905, had taken over the duties of headmistress by the fall of 1948: letter of Bessie Chaikin to Horace Kadoorie, February 12, 1949, HKHP, Jewish Collection, Box E02/01. Sonnenschein left by February 1949.
- 88.
The following paragraphs are based on a series of letters between January and May 1949, HKHP, Jewish Collection, Box E02/01.
- 89.
Two inventories exist. One was drawn up by Mrs Sonnenschein, sent to H. Kadoorie by Bessie Chaikin, letter of February 12, 1949; the other, entitled “Inventory of the S.J.Y.A. School handed over the Seventh Day Adventists—April 1, 1949,” was” sent to W. C. L. Andrews by Chaikin on April 20, 1949, HKHP, Jewish Collection, Box E02/01.
- 90.
Meyer, From the Rivers of Babylon to the Whangpoo, 228.
- 91.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Sydney, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, December 13, 1949, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 92.
Jewish Community Bulletin 117, San Francisco, March 17, 1967.
- 93.
Amelia Allsop, ed., A Philanthropic Tradition: The Kadoorie Family (Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Heritage Project, 2012), 9.
- 94.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, January 30, 1946, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 95.
Letter from Lucie Hartwich, Shanghai, to Franz Furstenheim, New York, March 17, 1946, courtesy of Peter Schweitzer.
- 96.
Letter from Hartwich to Furstenheim, December 17, 1945.
- 97.
Kranzler, Japanese, Nazis & Jews, 403 note 7, says that the Kadoorie School curriculum was similar to that of the Jüdische Volksschule in Würzburg.
- 98.
Email to the author from Ralph Hirsch, December 16, 2010; email to the author from Hans Jorysz, May 5, 2013.
- 99.
Letter from Hartwich to Furstenheim, December 17, 1945.
- 100.
Examples of refugee schools can be seen at the following websites: African schools at Friends of Conakry Refugee School (fcrs.org.uk). Accessed September 22, 2021; a school for refugees from Myanmar in Malaysia at http://www.unhcr.org/4b45dcc29.html. Accessed September 22, 2021.
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Hochstadt, S. (2022). The Kadoorie School: Educating Refugee Children in Shanghai. In: Ostoyich, K., Xia, Y. (eds) The History of the Shanghai Jews. Palgrave Series in Asian German Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13761-7_5
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