Abstract
Sustainability is now a commonplace term, its connotations ranging from the minimal—survival and reproduction—to the various renditions of “sustainable development.” In this chapter, I review some controversies haunting policy and academic debates on sustainability. Irreconcilable objectives within commitments to sustainability produce what I call a “sustainability paradox.” On the one hand, analyses, models, policies, and projects are committed to what we might term “fundamental system preservation”—not in terms of ecological systems but in terms of dominant human socioeconomic ones. On the other hand, there is the understanding that anthropogenic climate change is engendered by that very socioeconomic activity. When a framework predicated on fundamental (social) system preservation tries to assimilate even minimal inputs from the climate sciences or interdisciplinary climate research, the resulting “sustainable” frameworks are fundamentally incoherent. To better understand how that social system—Actually Existing Capitalism—organizes its metabolic interchange between society and nature, I offer the concept of “the extractive circuit,” a vicious cycle of material extraction and affective exhaustion. I then review the existing literature that attempts to “solve” the sustainability paradox in terms of what appears to be a broad social and ecological definition of sustainability: the elaboration of a global sustainable human “ecological niche,” well-disposed to the flourishing of some 7–9 billion humans. Finally, I review key debates surrounding “green capitalism,” “green growth,” “ecomodernism,” “degrowth,” and eco-Marxism, and propose several broad parameters for achieving such an objective.
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Notes
- 1.
Smith, Ashley. 2020. Competing with Nature: COVID-19 as a Capitalist Virus. Spectre. October 16. https://spectrejournal.com/competing-with-nature/.
- 2.
For example, a recent survey by the Annenberg Public Policy Center found that upwards of 71% of all Americans (and 61% of Republicans) “believed” in anthropogenic climate change. The US is unquestionably the principle home of climate denial in the world, but it is no longer the most pertinent question even here. For more on denial statistics and the effects of survey questions on them, please see: Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania. 2019. Do most Americans believe in human-caused climate change? It depends on how you ask: Three wording decisions can significantly alter estimates. ScienceDaily. 9 May. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190509133848.htm.
- 3.
Costanza, Robert, Bernard C. Patten. 1995. Defining and Predicting Sustainability. Ecological Economics 15, vol. 3: 193–196. doi: 10.1016/0921-8009(95)00048-8.
- 4.
Costanza and Patten 1995.
- 5.
John H. Armstrong and Sheldon Kamieniecki (2019) provides at least a partial overview alongside many of the other texts discussed here. They too note “there is fairly wide variation in use of sustainability, and many scholars fail to provide a definition.”
- 6.
Crutzen, Paul J., Eugene F. Stoermer. 2000. The “Anthropocene.” IGBP Newsletter 41: 17–18.
- 7.
Oldfield, Frank, et al. 2014. The Anthropocene Review: Its significance, implications and the rationale for a new transdisciplinary journal. The Anthropocene Review 1, no. 1: 3–7. doi: 10.1177/2053019613500445.
- 8.
O’Neill, D.W., A. L Fanning, W.F. Lamb, et al. 2018. A good life for all within planetary boundaries. Nature Sustainability 1: 88–95. doi: 10.1038/s41893-018-0021-4.
- 9.
Malm, Andreas. 2020. The Progress of this Storm: Nature and Society in a Warming World. New York: Verso.
- 10.
C.f. a wide range of arguments from Jean Drèze and Amartya Sen’s Hunger and Public Action, to Patrick Heller’s The Labor of Development, and Ha-Joon Chang’s Bad Samaritans—all of which observe how “development” can impede high-yield peasant agriculture, how development goals can be achieved without economic growth, as illustrated particularly in the case of the Indian state of Kerala in the mid-late twentieth century, and how neoliberal development strategies neither mirror historical development nor contemporary realities. Drèze, Jean, Amartya Sen. 1991. Hunger and Public Action. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Heller, Patrick. 1999. The Labor of Development: Workers and the Transformation of Capitalism in Kerala, India. Ithaca: Cornell University Press; Chang, Ha-Joon. 2010. Bad Samaritans: The Myth of Free Trade and the Secret History of Capitalism. New York: Bloomsbury.
- 11.
See for example Luís M. A. Bettencourta and Jasleen Kau 2011; Halina Szejnwald Brown 2012; Anne Jerneck et al 2011; the team led by Jerneck et al probably come closest to dealing with the kinds of questions raised here but they punt sustainability conceptually as well, at best as something discursively produced. As I explore further here, many of these kinds of studies are what I term “intuitive critical theories” although in the case of Jerneck et al, critical theoretical grounding is openly acknowledged. What I try to argue for here—a critical theory of sustainability—is what arguments like those of Jerneck et al demand, made explicit. I have addressed the broader relationship of Critical Theory and ecology in the chapter “Emancipation, Domination, and Critical Theory in the Anthropocene” forthcoming with Rowman and Littlefield, September 2021.
- 12.
Xu, Yangyang, Veerabhadran Ramanathan. 2017. Well below 2 °C: Mitigation strategies for avoiding dangerous to catastrophic climate changes. PNAS September 26, 2017, 114 (39): 10315–10323. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1618481114.
- 13.
Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. 2020. We’re Not in This Together. The Baffler 51. April. https://thebaffler.com/salvos/were-not-in-this-together-chaudhary.
- 14.
Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, et al (eds.). 2018. Summary for Policymakers. Global Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. IPCC. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/spm/.
- 15.
This is clearly visible in the emissions records, and the “Great Acceleration” measures used by Steffen et al. 2015 and Costanza et al. 2007; high profits can be deceptive. Overall global growth rates—often called the “productivity crisis” from a business point-of-view—are flagging. I will discuss this further in this chapter, but please see Aaron Benanav Automation and the Future of Work for a thorough account. Benanav, Aaron. 2020. Automation and the Future of Work. New York: Verso.
- 16.
IPCC Special Report, 355.
- 17.
See, for example, “Scrutinizing the Great Acceleration: The Anthropocene and its analytic challenges for social-ecological transformations” or “Profiting in a Warming World: Investigating the Link Between Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Capitalist Profitability in OECD States.” Some of the most influential ideas in environmental sociology like Allan Schnaiberg’s “treadmill of accumulation” or Kenneth Pomeranz’s argument concerning coal, colonialization and British industrialization in The Great Divergence all make similar arguments from quite different perspectives.
- 18.
Wright, Christopher, Daniel Nyberg. 2015. Climate Change, Capitalism, and Corporations: Processes of Creative Self-Destruction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, x.
- 19.
Steffen et al. 2015; some of this section adapted from Chaudhary, The Exhausted of the Earth.
- 20.
Steffen, Will, Johan Rockström, Katherine Richardson, et al. 2018. Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, 33: 82528259. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1810141115.
- 21.
IPCC Special Report, v.
- 22.
Chaudhary 2020b.
- 23.
Chaudhary 2020b.
- 24.
Wright and Nyberg 2015.
- 25.
Malm, Andreas. 2016. Fossil Capital: The Rise of Steam Power and the Roots of Global Warming. New York: Verso; Klein, Naomi. 2015. This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. The Climate. New York: Simon & Schuster; Aronoff, Kate, Alyssa Battistoni, Daniel Aldana Cohen, and Thea Riofrancos. 2019. A Planet to Win: Why We Need a Green New Deal. New York: Verso.
- 26.
Azmanova’s succinct description of capitalism as “the competitive production of profit” and its constitutive social relations is extremely helpful here (Azmanova, Albena. Capitalism on Edge: How Fighting Precarity Can Achieve Radical Change Without Crisis or Utopia. New York: Columbia University Press, 41). As I address below, talking about the motions of capital without recourse to pure or reductive class analysis gives us access to far greater clarity about the dynamics of capitalism today, particularly in its socioecological context. Furthermore, the potential constituency for left climate politics is both greater than that of so-called “orthodox” Marxist class analysis (without being universal, thus it is an agonistic politics) and one can imagine several forms of societies and global political economy more broadly that are still technically “capitalist” in this sense but do not have features of continued capital accumulation at the societal or global level, even while addressing the many dominations discussed. Sadly, the full politics of this go far beyond the scope of this chapter.
- 27.
Please see Vaclav Smil, Growth, to get a scale of this scope. While we will revisit some of his arguments later, the point here is not to review any of these authors in great detail but rather to see the patterns of convergence. Smil, Vaclav. 2020. Growth: From Microorganisms to Megacities. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- 28.
Smil 2020, 495. Although a critic of the original 1972 Limits to Growth as overly simplified and assumptive, Smil is largely sympathetic to ecological economic thinkers like Richard York and Joan Martinez-Alier.
- 29.
Watts, Jonathan. 2019. “Growth must end. Our economist friends don’t seem to realise that.” The Guardian. September 21. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/sep/21/vaclav-smil-interview-growth-must-end-economists
- 30.
Smil 2020. Growth, 507; Smil references O’Neill et al “A good life…” here.
- 31.
Malm 2016.
- 32.
- 33.
- 34.
There is much to be said here about the politics of science, but that goes far beyond the scope of this chapter.
- 35.
And I would add that, as much as I am focused in this section on trying to get theorists, strategists, and activists to pay more attention to the climate sciences in particular, and the natural sciences more broadly, it is also imperative that natural scientists—particularly those dismayed by climate inaction and who see what I am calling here the sustainability paradox—to start taking far more seriously counter-hegemonic political histories and theories.
- 36.
Marx 1990, 283.
- 37.
Costanza and Patten 1995.
- 38.
Wark 2019.
- 39.
Timon McPhearson, et al., “Radical changes are needed for transformations to a good Anthropocene,” npj Urban Sustain 1, 5 (2021).
- 40.
Chaudhary 2021.
- 41.
Max Horkheimer, “Traditional and Critical Theory” in: Max Horkheimer. Critical Theory: Selected Essays. New York: Continuum, 2002.
- 42.
Peter Marcuse, “Sustainability is Not Enough” in: The Future of Sustainability, ed. Marco Keiner, Springer 2006.
- 43.
C.f. Chaudhary 2020; Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. 2018. It’s Already Here. n+1. October 10. https://nplusonemag.com/online-only/online-only/its-already-here/; Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. 2019. The Climate of Socialism. Socialist Forum. Winter. https://socialistforum.dsausa.org/issues/winter-2019/the-climate-of-socialism/; Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. 2019. Subjectivity, Affect, and Exhaustion: The Political Theology of the Anthropocene. Political Theology. February 25. https://politicaltheology.com/subjectivity-affect-and-exhaustion/. For an alternative heuristic and full discussion of the extractive circuit, see Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. The Exhausted of the Earth: Political Theory for the Anthropocene. Manuscript Unpublished. In lecture form as “The Long Now,” Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. 2019. The Long Now. A Night of Philosophy and Ideas. February 9. New York. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzS3WFfxMoA.
- 44.
Steffen et al. 2015; c.f. Kate Aronoff in conversation with Steffen: Aronoff, Kate. 2018. “Hothouse Earth” Co-Author: The Problem is Neoliberal Economics. The Intercept. August 14.
- 45.
The introduction to the next section is adapted from Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. 2019. The Climate of Socialism. Socialist Forum. Winter. https://socialistforum.dsausa.org/issues/winter-2019/the-climate-of-socialism/
- 46.
The rarity of “rare earth metals” can be overstated and often involves geopolitical maneuvering as much as actual geology. For more on this, please see: Klinger, Julie M. 2017. Rare Earth Frontiers: From Terrestrial Subsoils to Lunar Landscapes. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
- 47.
World Bank Group. Country: Congo (Democratic Republic of the). Climate Change Knowledge Portal. https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/congo-democratic-republic.
- 48.
Raworth, Kate. 2017. Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st Century Economist. New York: Penguin, 58; see also Stern.
- 49.
My use is different from Mirowski’s, but I am indebted.
- 50.
Gordon 2017, 547.
- 51.
C.f. Benanav 2020.
- 52.
C.f. Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. 2020. Franz Neumann and the Critical Theory of State for the 21st Century. In The Future of the State. Ed. Artemy Magun. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
- 53.
C.f. Gary Gereffi. 2018. Global Value Chains and Development: Redefining the Contours of 21st Century Capitalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Richard Baldwin. 2012. Global Supply Chains: Why They Emerged, Why They Matter, and Where They Are Going. CEPR Discussion Papers 9103.
- 54.
C.f Tooze (2019).
- 55.
- 56.
Klinger 2017.
- 57.
For an analysis that follows a Marxian labor theory of value for refugees and migrants, see Rajaram, P.K. 2018. Refugees as Surplus Population: Race, Migration and Capitalist Value Regimes. New Political Economy 23, 5: 627–639. doi: 10.1080/13563467.2017.1417372; alternatively, for an analysis that demonstrates refugee “capitalization” through data extraction and circulation, see Martina Tazzioli. 2020. Extract, Datafy and Disrupt: Refugees’ Subjectivities between Data Abundance and Data Disregard. Geopolitics. doi: 10.1080/14650045.2020.1822332. Davis’ work itself highlights a number of additional sources of profitability in the global surplus population, from simple “slumlordism” to complex real estate valuations and fees for toilets, in addition to modes of informal labor and even “enforced entrepreneurialism.” Davis, Mike. 2006. Planet of Slums. New York: Verso.
- 58.
See for example California’s much vaunted cap-and-trade program, one of the world’s first and largest such programs: “ProPublica analyzed state data in a way the state doesn’t often report to the public, isolating how emissions have grown within the oil and gas industry. The analysis shows that carbon emissions from California’s oil and gas industry actually rose 3.5% since cap and trade began. Refineries, including one owned by Marathon Petroleum and two owned by Chevron, are consistently the largest polluters in the state. Emissions from vehicles, which burn the fuels processed in refineries, are also rising.” (Song, Lisa. 2019. “Cap and Trade Is Supposed to Solve Climate Change, but Oil and Gas Company Emissions Are Up.” Pro Publica. November 15.) We will return to this discussion in addressing carbon pricing later in the chapter.
- 59.
Smith, Christopher J. et al. 2019. Current fossil fuel infrastructure does not yet commit us to 1.5 °C warming. Nature Communications 10, 101. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-07999-w.
- 60.
Nordhaus, William. 2008. A Question of Balance: Weighing the Options on Global Warming Policies. New Haven: Yale University Press, here 169; section here adapted (but heavily) from Chaudhary, The Exhausted of the Earth, Chapter 2; also draws on material in Chaudhary 2020.
- 61.
IPCC Special Report, 152.
- 62.
Chaudhary 2020.
- 63.
IMF paper by Cohen, Gail, João Tovar Jalles, Prakash Loungani, and Ricardo Marto. 2018. The Long-Run Decoupling of Emissions and Output: Evidence from the Largest Emitters. International Monetary Fund, Working Paper. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2018/03/13/The-Long-Run-Decoupling-of-Emissions-and-Output-Evidence-from-the-Largest-Emitters-45688; large portions of this section adapted from Chaudhary, The Exhausted of the Earth, Chapter 1.
- 64.
Again, it is important to note that carbon emissions are just one variable among many, although, it cannot be emphasized enough, one of the most important and upon which so much else relies.
- 65.
Decarbonization in Germany. Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy, gGmbH. September. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2299.4641.
- 66.
Wettengel, Julian. 2020. Germany’s dependence on imported fossil fuels. Clean Energy Wire. June 19. https://www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/germanys-dependence-imported-fossil-fuels. It is worth noting that Russia is the world’s fourth largest carbon-emitter, after China, the United States, and India.
- 67.
See Yan et al. “Carbon endowment and trade-embodied carbon emissions in global value chains”; Guo and Ma “Research on global carbon emission flow and unequal environmental exchanges among regions”; Wu et al. “Carbon emissions embodied in the global supply chain: Intermediate and final trade imbalances”.
- 68.
Wiedmann T. 2016. Impacts Embodied in Global Trade Flows. In: Clift R., Druckman A. (eds) Taking Stock of Industrial Ecology. Springer, Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20571-7_8.
- 69.
Nachtwey, Oliver. 2018. Germany’s Hidden Crisis: Social Decline in the Heart of Europe. New York: Verso.
- 70.
Ward, James, Paul C. Dutton, Adrian D. Werner, et al. 2016. Is Decoupling GDP Growth from Environmental Impact Possible? PLOS One. October 14. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164733.
- 71.
As noted in Stern 2011. David Stern’s paper on the role of energy in economic growth, the case for absolute decoupling often appears like an argument against the 2nd second law of thermodynamics. David I. Stern. 2011. The role of energy in economic growth. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1219: 26–51.
- 72.
Ward et al. 2016, 12.
- 73.
Anderson, Kevin, Alice Bows. 2012. A new paradigm for climate change. Nature Climate Change 2: 639–640. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1646.
- 74.
Hickel, Jason. 2018. Why Growth Can’t Be Green. Foreign Policy. September 12. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/12/why-growth-cant-be-green/; see also Jason Hickel and Giorgos Kallis. 2020. Is Green Growth Possible? New Political Economy 25, 4: 469–486. doi: 10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964.
- 75.
In this sense, Pollin’s broader claim that a transition is worth the “cost” is correct even if it does not validate his entire argument regarding green growth.
- 76.
C.f. O’Neill et al; as we will see, far more than what the authors claim is possible.
- 77.
Bowland Marland Anders, cited in Wright and Nyberg 2015.
- 78.
Malm 2016, 384.
- 79.
Barrett, Adam. 2018. How capitalism without growth could build a more stable economy. Brave New Europe. February 27. https://braveneweurope.com/adam-barrett-how-capitalism-without-growth-could-build-a-more-stable-economy; I have to thank my colleague Raphaele Raphaële Chappe for bringing this fascinating paper to my attention after a faculty colloquium at the Brooklyn Institute for Social Research. The mechanisms that Barrett relies upon to demonstrate wage increase are within the technical model. I am using a political economy model much closer to the next paper discussed in this sub-section, which assumes that distributional goals will be achieved largely politically.
- 80.
Cahen-Fourot, Louison, and Marc Lavoie. 2016. Ecological monetary economics: A post-Keynesian critique. Ecological Economics 126 (C): 163–168. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.03.007.
- 81.
Pollin 2018.
- 82.
It is worth noting that the actual legislative document for the Green New Deal, as submitted by US Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Senator Ed Markey, although slim on detail and certainly open to interpretation, rather deftly avoids the growth question altogether. I view this as salutary.
- 83.
Milanović, Branko. 2018. Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist by Kate Raworth. Brave New Europe. June 25. https://braveneweurope.com/doughnut-economics-seven-ways-to-think-like-a-21st-century-economist-by-kate-raworth; Raworth, Kate. 2018. Reply by Kate Raworth from 26 June. Brave New Europe. June 26. https://braveneweurope.com/doughnut-economics-seven-ways-to-think-like-a-21st-century-economist-by-kate-raworth.
- 84.
In addition to much of the climate science material already reviewed here, see also Smith, Christopher J., Forster, P.M., Allen, M. et al. 2019. Current fossil fuel infrastructure does not yet commit us to 1.5 °C warming. Nature Communications 10, 101. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07999-w.
- 85.
Benanav 2020, 50.
- 86.
Samir Amin. 2010. The Law of Worldwide Value. New York: Monthly Review Press.
- 87.
Schor and Jorgensen. 2019. Is It Too Late for Growth? Review of Radical Political Economics 51, 2: 320–329.
- 88.
For a detailed account of just how ahistorical such ideas area, see Przeworski, Adam. Capitalism and Social Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
- 89.
Chibber, Vivek. 2017. Why We Still Talk About the Working Class. Jacobin. March 15. https://www.jacobinmag.com/2017/03/abcs-socialism-working-class-workers-capitalism-power-vivek-chibber/.
- 90.
Huber, Matthew. 2020. Ecology at the point of production: climate change and class struggle. Polygraph 28: 23–43.
- 91.
Nachtwey, Oliver. 2018. Germany’s Hidden Crisis: Social Decline in the Heart of Europe. New York: Verso. 56.
- 92.
For a full list, see Morton, Oliver. 2015. The Planet Remade: How Geoengineering Could Change the World. Princeton: Princeton University Press; the book is extremely gung-ho.
- 93.
C.f. Fraser, Costanza, Benanav, and many others; for the record, I like Star Trek.
- 94.
C.f. Ezra Klein interview with Elizabeth Kolbert. 9 Feb 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/09/podcasts/ezra-klein-podcast-elizabeth-kolbert-transcript.html
- 95.
@DrKateMarvel (Kate Marvel). “My thoughts on geoengineering: 1. We should study it 2. We should not do it 3. We should definitely not tell billionaires they can do it” Twitter, 13 March 2019, https://twitter.com/drkatemarvel/status/1105820540328132610?lang=en; see Carbon Brief Interview: Dr. Kate Marvel, 24 Oct 2018, https://www.carbonbrief.org/carbon-brief-interview-dr-kate-marvel
- 96.
Costanza and Patten 1995.
- 97.
An Ecomodernist Manifesto. 2015. http://www.ecomodernism.org
- 98.
Grunwald, Armin. 2016. Diverging pathways to overcoming the environmental crisis: A critique of eco-modernism from a technology assessment perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production. August. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.212.
- 99.
Benanav, Aaron. 2020. Automation and the Future of Work. New York: Verso. 90–91.
- 100.
Chaudhary 2018.
- 101.
Phillips, Leigh. 2015. Austerity Ecology & the Collapse-Porn Addicts: A Defence of Growth, Progress, Industry and Stuff. Alresford: Zero Books.
- 102.
Phillips 2015.
- 103.
Phillips, Leigh, Michal Rozworski. 2019. The People’s Republic of Walmart: How the World’s Biggest Corporations are Laying the Foundation for Socialism. New York: Verso. Phillips and Rozworski’s case builds on the idea that “Amazon is a giant planned machine for distributing goods.” Although they build from the classic socialist calculation debates between figures like Friedrich Hayek and Oscar Lange, their argument is far less predicated on those debates, or Marx’s brief speculations on corporate ownership in Capital Vol. III, than with, as they basically state if cautiously, the ultra-capitalist theories of Ronald Coase and Joseph Schumpeter. There is nothing intrinsically wrong with drawing on right-wing analysis (Lange himself credited Hayek for inspiring some of his market socialist ideas) but they do so without taking into consideration what assumptions such thinkers are bringing that prove difficult to synthesize with a Marxian framework. The argument that big data platforms could be a foundation for a stage of socialism is not novel. The Chinese economists Binbin Wang and Xiaoyan Li—with considerable coverage in the Western press—had coauthored an influential paper on this question in 2015. Phillips and Rozworski either never read the paper or its coverage or carefully avoided citing it. Wang and Li also build from the socialist calculation debates but in a far more careful way. Platforms, they argue, are natural monopolies and therefore ideal for state ownership which is also the central repository of all the data in discussion. Big data has the potential to ‘solve’ the socialist calculation debate—but only to a degree. Even focusing just on the data side, some data collected is essentially useless for socialist planning since the market values it is capturing do not reflect overall social needs or desirability but merely consumer preferences in aggregate in the market. Thus, for Wang and Li, while a kind of platform socialism is both possible and desirable, they admit to several significant shortcomings: such a system is limited when it comes to “non-competitive” areas—in fact basically everything outside the consumer goods and services market. Research and development, raw materials, energy, and more would be distorted through the socialized platform and thus must be directly managed by the state. The system would—even under public ownership—run risk of overproduction. Finally, despite their support, they see such a platform—far more realizable in China than possibly anywhere else on Earth—as at best a liminal transition to better economic planning because of the above limitations. Binbin Wang, and Xiaoyan Li. “Big Data, Platform Economy and Market Competition: A Preliminary Construction of Plan-Oriented Market Economy System in the Information Era.” World Review of Political Economy, vol. 8, no. 2, 2017. Such drawbacks are ignored in Phillips and Rozworski or are said to be problems solely because of the market which vanishes with public ownership.
- 104.
See, for example: Bridges, Lauren E. “Material Entanglements of Community Surveillance and Infrastructural Power.” AoIR Selected Papers of Internet Research, 2020.
- 105.
Volpe, Vanessa V., et al. “Anti-Black Structural Racism Goes Online: A Conceptual Model for Racial Health Disparities Research.” Ethnicity & Disease, vol. 31, no. Suppl, 2021, pp. 311–18. Probably the most famous cases of intrinsic racist design in modern technology are in imaging. Many film stocks, designed by and for white constituencies, simply could not properly reproduce black faces and features. The physical materials chosen and processes used were matched to one population; the technology required serious revision to achieve even a modicum of equality. When Microsoft released its Kinect motion capture cameras for its Xbox gaming consoles in 2010, the same error was notoriously repeated: the Kinect could not “recognize dark-skinned users.” Broussard, Meredith. Artificial Unintelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World. The MIT Press, 2019. 157.
- 106.
In Phillips and Rozworski, for example, race, gender, sexuality, colonization, and imperialism get only one passing mention as “identity issues” in the “free market.” While capitalism is condemned for encouraging or profiting off these phenomena, technology is presented as wholly neutral, whatever its ills to be solved in a change of ownership. However, as scholars of technology like Safiya Umoja Noble or Frank Pasquale among many others point out, technology is designed toward working, profitably, in a world in which capitalizing on any of these categories or phenomena is profitable. It’s not simply in the ownership; it’s in the material object and the code.
- 107.
Benjamin, Walter. 2016. One Way Street. Trans. Edmund Jephcott. Ed. Michael W. Jennings. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
- 108.
Benjamin 2016.
- 109.
Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. “The Long Now.” Late Light: Journal of the Brooklyn Institute for Social Research. Vol. 1. One of the reasons I scare quote “ecomodernism” throughout here is that, as I argue in the cited article, an ecological modernism that is genuinely ecological in scientifically recognizable ways and modernist in the broadest social and aesthetic senses, is crucial as part of a politics of climate change.
- 110.
For a more thorough and nuanced account of the historical Lysenko and Lysenkoist movement, please see: Levins, Richard, and Lewontin. The Dialectical Biologist. Adfo Books, 2009.
- 111.
Haskins, Caroline. 2019. Jeff Bezos Is a Post-Earth Capitalist. Vice. October 5. https://www.vice.com/en/article/3k3kwb/jeff-bezos-is-a-post-earth-capitalist/
- 112.
- 113.
Pollin 2018.
- 114.
D’Alisa, Giacomo, Federico Demaria, Giorgos Kallis (eds.). 2015. Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, here 1–2.
- 115.
D’Alisa et al. 2015, 5.
- 116.
Chaudhary 2020. Franz Neumann and the Critical Theory of State for the 21st Century.
- 117.
D’Alisa et al. 2015, 5.
- 118.
D’Alisa et al. 2015, 206.
- 119.
Hickel, Jason. 2020. Less is More: How Degrowth Will Save the World. London: Windmill Books.
- 120.
Hickel 2020.
- 121.
See Pirgmaier, Elke, Julia K. Steinberger. 2001. Roots, Riots, and Radical Change—A Road Less Travelled for Ecological Economics. Sustainability 11, 7.
- 122.
Malm 2016.
- 123.
C.f. Bowles, Samuel, Arjun Jayadev. 2007. Garrison America. The Economists’ Voice 4, 2: 1–7.
- 124.
Neilson and Stubbs 2011, 450.
- 125.
Neilson and Stubbs 2011, 450.
- 126.
Neilson and Stubbs 2011; adapted from Chaudhary, Ajay Singh. The Exhausted of the Earth: Political Theory for the Anthropocene, manuscript unpublished. Unpublished Manuscript.
- 127.
In this case about class theory (c.f. Prezworski Captitalism and Social Democracy).
- 128.
C.f. Mann, Geoff, Joel Wainwright. 2018. Climate Leviathan: A Political Theory of Our Planetary Future. New York: Verso.
- 129.
Malm 2016, 383.
- 130.
Rosa Luxemburg said no. Others, yes.
- 131.
C.f. Chaudary 2019b. The Climate of Socialism.
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Chaudhary 2019, The Long Now. A Night of Philosophy and Ideas. February 9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzS3WFfxMoA.
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Rosset, Peter, Miguel and Altieri. 2017. Agroecology: Science and Politics. Nova Scotia: Fernwood, here 79.
- 134.
C.f. Battistoni 2019.
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Chaudhary, A.S. (2022). Sustaining What? Capitalism, Socialism, and Climate Change. In: Azmanova, A., Chamberlain, J. (eds) Capitalism, Democracy, Socialism: Critical Debates. Philosophy and Politics - Critical Explorations, vol 22. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08407-2_9
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