Abstract
This chapter discusses the Justice and Development Party’s (AKP) neo-Ottomanist history politics with a focus on commemoration and memorialisation of the First World War and the “Independence War” in Turkey. These commemorations refer to a mythical Ottoman past that stresses Sunni-Muslim-Turkish imperial legacy and the prominence of Muslim faith, solidarity, and martyrdom. While they undermine the hero cult around Mustafa Kemal and pluralize heroism by including women (and other male warriors), the commemorations consciously omit the existence of non-Muslim soldiers and ethnic violence against non-Muslims. The chapter traces incorporation of mythical narratives of women warriors into the centennial memorialisation in order to explore the shift in the construction of masculinities and femininities. Although the recognition of women’s participation in the war effort is a step towards pluralisation, women’s heroic representations reflect the same neo-Ottomanist obsession with “Muslim martyrdom” that rests on a masculinist notion of heroism, and a homogeneous ethno-religious identity.
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Notes
- 1.
“700. Yıl’a 2 milyon dolar” [2 million dollars for the 700th anniversary], Milliyet, 10 February 1999 https://www.milliyet.com.tr/the-others/700-yila-2-milyon-dolar-5257361 (30 June 2020)
- 2.
On 19 January 2007, Hrant Dink, the founder and the chief editor of the Armenian-Turkish weekly newspaper AGOS and the most vocal and visible member of the remaining Armenian community in Turkey, was assassinated on a busy street in Istanbul in front of his office. The murder was widely reported, both in national and international media, putting the AKP government under pressure regarding its treatment of religious minorities (Ayata 2012, 14–15).
- 3.
For a discussion of non-official centenary events, see Maksudyan 2019.
- 4.
“Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan, Çanakkale Şehitler Abidesi’ni Ziyaret Etti” [President Erdoğan visited the monument of martyrs in Çanakkale], issued by the Office of Turkish President, 14 March 2015, https://www.tccb.gov.tr/haberler/410/29707/cumhurbaskani-erdogan-canakkale-sehitler-abidesini-ziyaret-etti (16 May 2019).
- 5.
“Turkey starts programme of events to mark Centenary of Gallipoli campaign”, Centenary News, 19 March 2015, http://www.centenarynews.com/article/turkey-starts-programme-of-events-to-mark-centenary-of-gallipoli-campaign (4 April 2019)
- 6.
“Büyük Zafer 100. yılında törenlerle kutlandı” [The 100th anniversary of the big victory has been celebrated with ceremonies], Habertürk, 19 March 2015, https://www.haberturk.com/gundem/haber/1055358-canakkale-zaferinin-100-yildonumu-cesitli-etkinliklerle-anildi (16 May 2019).
- 7.
- 8.
“Başbakanlık’ta ‘Çanakkale Menüsü’” [The ‘Gallipoli menu’ at the office of the presidency], Yeni Şafak, 18 March 2015, https://www.yenisafak.com/gundem/basbakanlikta-canakkale-menusu-2104817 (16 May 2019).
- 9.
“Davutoğlu: Milletimiz mertçe savaşır” [Davutoğlu: Our people fight bravely], Yeni Şafak, 18 March 2015, https://www.yenisafak.com/gundem/davutoglu-milletimiz-mertce-savasir-2104830 (16 May 2019).
- 10.
Centenary News, 26 March 2015, http://www.centenarynews.com/article?id=3286 (4 April 2019).
- 11.
“Çanakkale’de görkemli anma töreni” [Splendid commemoration in Çanakkale], TRT Haber, 24 April 2015, https://www.trthaber.com/haber/gundem/canakkalede-gorkemli-anma-toreni-180633.html (16 May 2019).
- 12.
The countries represented included the United Kingdom, Albania, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Djibouti, South Sudan, Ireland, Montenegro, Qatar, Macedonia, Mali, Niger, Pakistan, Senegal, Somalia, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Sudan, Australia, New Zealand, Moldova, Romania, and Syria.
World leaders join Gallipoli commemoration in Turkey, Aljazeera, 24 April 2015, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/04/world-leaders-remember-gallipoli-centenary (16 May 2019).
- 13.
“Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan: Tedavülden kaldırılıp tarihin tozlu raflarına havale edildiler” [President Erdoğan: They have been put on the dusty shelves of the past], Anadolu Ajansı (AA), 28 April 2016, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/cumhurbaskani-erdogan-tedavulden-kaldirilip-tarihin-tozlu-raflarina-havale-edildiler/563210?preview=1 (19 May 2016).
- 14.
See, Kut’ül Amare, “Bağımsızlık ve hürriyet aşkının destanı” [An epic of love of independence and freedom], AA, 29 April 2016, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/kutul-amare-bagimsizlik-ve-hurriyet-askinin-destani/563536 (4 April 2019); “Kut’ül Amare zaferi Rusları da etkiledi” [Kut victory also influenced the Russians], AA, 29 April 2016, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/kutul-amare-zaferi-ruslari-da-etkiledi/563654 (4 April 2019); “Kut’ül Amare Zaferi’ni İngilizler bize un”utturdu [The English made us forget the victory of Kut], AA, 29 April 2016, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/kutul-amare-zaferini-ingilizler-bize-unutturdu/563531 (4 April 2019); “100. Yılında Unutulan Zafer: Kut’ül Amare” [Forgotten Victory in the 100th Anniversary: Kut’ul Amare] (infographic), AA, 29 April 2016, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/info/infografik/1019 (4 April 2019).
- 15.
The Ministry of Culture and Tourism published a short clip for the centenary, “Kut’ül Amare hafızalardan silinmeyecek” [Kut’ül Amare won’t be erased from the memories], issued by AA, 29 April 2016, https://youtu.be/X91JjJ8NMlo (16 May 2019).
- 16.
“Kut’ül Amare Zaferi’nin 100.yılı için görkemli anma programı” [Splendid commemoration for the 100th anniversary of the Kut’ül Amare victory] AA, 29 April 2016, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/kut-ul-amare-zaferinin-100yili-icin-gorkemli-anma-programi/563907 (16 May 2019).
- 17.
Ibid.
- 18.
“Tarihi 1919’dan başlatanlar milletimizin hasmıdır” [Those who start the history from 1919 are the enemy of our people], Yeni Şafak, 30 April 2016, https://www.yenisafak.com/gundem/tarihi-1919dan-baslatanlar-milletimizin-hasmidir-2459219 (16 May 2019).
- 19.
“Kitaplardan İsmet İnönü çıktı Kut-ül Amare girdi” [Ismet Inönü got erased from textbooks whereas Kut’ül Amare is now covered], Sözcü, 17 January 2017, https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2017/egitim/kitaplardan-ismet-inonu-cikti-kut-ul-amare-girdi-1626476/ (4 April 2019).
- 20.
“Gençlik Şühedanın İzinde: Dumlupınar’dan Zafertepe’ye” [Youth On the Trail of Martyrs: From Dumlupınar to Zafertepe], T24, 20 August 2013, https://t24.com.tr/haber/genclik-suhedanin-izinde,237430 (4 April 2019).
- 21.
“Binlerce Genç, Sarıkamış’ta Ecdadın İzinde Yürüdü” [Thousands of Youth walked on the trail of martyrs in Sarıkamış], Ministry of Youth and Sports, 5 January 2014, http://www.gsb.gov.tr/HaberDetaylari/3/3798/binlerce-genc-sarikamista-ecdadin-izinde-yurudu.aspx (4 April 2019).
- 22.
“Sarıkamış Harekatının 100. yılında anma yürüyüşü” [Memorial march on the 100th anniversary of the Sarıkamış operation], CNN Türk, 5 January 2015, https://www.cnnturk.com/video/dunya/sarikamis-harekatinin-100-yilinda-anma-yuruyusu (4 April 2019).
- 23.
“Sarıkamış Şehitleri 101. Yılında Anıldı” [Sarıkamış Martyrs were commemorated on the 101st Anniversary], Hürriyet, 6 January 2016, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/sarikamis-sehitleri-101-yilinda-anildi-37223066 (4 April 2019).
- 24.
These were, “Asımın Nesli Asrın Yürüyüşünde” [Asım’s generation at the March of the Century], “Gök Allahuekber, Yer Allahuekber” [Sky Allahuekber, Earth Allahuekber]. “Asım’ın Nesli Asrın Yürüyüşünde”, İHA, 4 January 2015, https://www.iha.com.tr/haber-asimin-nesli-asrin-yuruyusunde-426210/ (16 May 2019).
- 25.
On the 104th anniversary (2019), several ministers, soldiers, and thousands of people walked in heavy snow. See “Şehitler böyle anıldı” [Martyrs were remembered like this], CNN Türk, 6 January 2019, https://www.cnnturk.com/video/turkiye/sehitler-boyle-anildi (4 April 2019).
- 26.
“Bursa Ulu Camii’nde Çanakkale Şehitleri İçin 253 Bin Hatim Duası Yapıldı” [253 hatim prayers have been prayed for the Gallipoli martyrs at the Ulu mosque in Bursa], Haberler, 18 March 2015, https://www.haberler.com/bursa-ulu-camii-nde-canakkale-sehitleri-icin-253-7087953-haberi/ (16 May 2019).
- 27.
“Çanakkale’de görkemli anma töreni“ [Splendid commemoration in Çanakkale], TRT Haber, 24 April 2015, https://www.trthaber.com/haber/gundem/canakkalede-gorkemli-anma-toreni-180633.html (16 May 2019).
- 28.
“Turkish President Erdoğan’s Gallipoli ‘prayer’ stirs debate”, Hürriyet Daily News, 21 April 2015, www. hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-president-erdogans-gallipoli-prayer-stirs-debate-81350 (6 July 2020).
- 29.
“Görkemle kutlansın” [May it be celebrated with splendour], Hürriyet, 17 April 2016, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/gorkemle-kutlansin-40089900 (4 April 2019).
- 30.
“Tarihi 1919’dan başlatanlar milletimizin hasmıdır” [Those who start the history from 1919 are the enemy of our people], Yeni Şafak, 30 April 2016, https://www.yenisafak.com/gundem/tarihi-1919dan-baslatanlar-milletimizin-hasmidir-2459219 (16 May 2019).
- 31.
Ibid.
- 32.
Ibid.
- 33.
Armenian genocide centenary: “MEPs urge Turkey and Armenia to normalize relations, issued by European Parliament”, 15 April 2015, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20150413IPR41671/armenian-genocide-centenary-meps-urge-turkey-and-armenia-to-normalize-relations (6 July 2020).
- 34.
“ A Conversation with Ahmet Davutoglu”, Council on Foreign Relations, 14 April 2010, https://www.cfr.org/event/conversation-ahmet-davutoglu-0 (27 March 2019); Murat Yetkin, “Davutoğlu: Ermeni diasporasıyla temas istiyoruz” [Davutoglu: We want contact with the Armenian diaspora], Radikal, 26 March 2010, http://www.radikal.com.tr/yazarlar/murat-yetkin/davutoglu-ermeni-diasporasiyla-temas-istiyoruz-987815/ (27 March 2019)
- 35.
The day signifies the round-up of Armenian notables in Istanbul for deportation (and murder) in 1915.
- 36.
The government passed a new law for the “Çanakkale Martyrs’ Day” commemorations, specifically indicating the date 18 March: “18 Mart Şehitler Günü ve 19 Eylül Gaziler Gününde Yapılacak Törenler Hakkında Yönetmelik”, http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/Metin.Aspx?MevzuatKod=7.5.5792&sourceXmlSearch=&MevzuatIliski=0 (27 March 2019)
- 37.
Robert Fisk, “The Gallipoli centenary is a shameful attempt to hide the Armenian Holocaust”, 19 January 2015, The Independent, https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/the-gallipoli-centenary-is-a-shameful-attempt-to-hide-the-armenian-holocaust-9988227.html (27 March 2019)
- 38.
Davutoğlu first used the concept in 2010, “A Conversation with Ahmet Davutoğlu”, Council on Foreign Relations, 14 April 2010, https://www.cfr.org/event/conversation-ahmet-davutoglu-0 (27 March 2019). Later, he wrote an article about the concept in 2014. Ahmet Davutoğlu, “Turkish-Armenian Relations: Is a ‘Just Memory’ possible?” Turkish Policy Quarterly (2014).
- 39.
“Turkish PM offers condolences over 1915 Armenian massacre”, The Guardian, 23 April 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/23/turkey-erdogan-condolences-armenian-massacre (27 March 2019)
- 40.
“Press Release Regarding the Statements Delivered During the Liturgy in Vatican on April 12, 2015”, http://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-110_-12-april-2015_-press-release-regarding-the-statements-delivered-during-the-liturgy-in-vatican-on-april-12_-2015.en.mfa (16 April 2019)
- 41.
The figure was also “reproduced” for the ten-year commemorations of the Republic on 29 October 1933. In the “procession of villagers”, there was in the front a village woman who pulled an oxcart laden with boxes of munitions, with a gun on her shoulder (Öztürkmen 2001, 61). In fact, all through the 1930s the significant contribution of the “Turkish women” to the “national struggle” was always stressed. It was claimed that “she distinguished herself through bravery and service” during the war (Cumhuriyet 1934).
- 42.
For a few examples see, “Şehit Şerife Bacı Anıtı” [Şerife Bacı Monument], İnebolu Belediyesi http://www.inebolu.bel.tr/inebolu-detay.asp?Id=102&ineboludetay=sehit-serife-baci-aniti; “Şehit Şerife Bacı Anıtı” [Martyr Şerife Bacı Monument], Seydiler, Kastamonu https://www.tskgv.org.tr/tr/sehit-serife-baci-sehitler-aniti; “Şerife Bacı Anıtı” [Şerife Bacı Monument], Ayazağa, İstanbul https://www.yasamgazetesi.com.tr/ozel-haber/bu-millet-senin-gibi-kahramanlara-minnettardir-serife-baci-aniti-ayazagada-acildi-h172061.html; “Şerife Bacı Anıtı” [Şerife Bacı Monument], Gaziosmanpaşa Istanbul http://www.gophaber.com/haber-sehit_serife_baci__kar_ustunde_cephane_tasiyor…-11765.html (7 July 2020)
- 43.
“Tarihe adını kahramanlığıyla yazdıran Nene Hatun’un heykeli tartışmaya neden oldu” [The statue of Nene Hatun, who made her name written in history with her heroism, caused controversy], HaberTurk, 11 May 2017 https://www.haberturk.com/yerel-haberler/haber/53573170-tarihe-adini-kahramanligiyla-yazdiran-nene-hatunun-heykeli-tartismaya-neden-oldu (7 July2020)
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
“Nene Hatun heykelindeki 24 yıllık hata düzeltildi” [The mistake on Nene Hatun’s memorial has been corrected after 24 years], Hürriyet, 12 December 2018. https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/nene-hatun-heykelindeki-24-yillik-hata-duzeltildi-41049068 (18 June 2020).
- 46.
“Milli Mücadele Kahramanı Şehit Makbule Hanım” [The Hero of the Independence War Martyr Makbule Hanım], Gördes Kaymakamlığı, 27 June 2019. http://www.gordes.gov.tr/milli-mucadele-kahramani-sehit-makbule-hanim (8 July 2020).
- 47.
“‘Kara Fatma’ya 59 yıl sonra anıt mezar” [After 59 years, there is a memorial tomb for ‘Kara Fatma’], Anadolu Ajansı, 14 June 2014 https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/yasam/kara-fatmaya-59-yil-sonra-anit-mezar/151164 (26 June 2020).
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Maksudyan, N., Alkan, H. (2023). Commemorating the First World War and Its Aftermath: Neo-Ottomanism, Gender, and the Politics of History in Turkey. In: Raudvere, C., Onur, P. (eds) Neo-Ottoman Imaginaries in Contemporary Turkey. Modernity, Memory and Identity in South-East Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08023-4_7
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