Abstract
Syria has been marked by the birth and interaction of civilizations that changed the course of human history. With its cultural wealth and close links to neighboring peoples, Syria played an important part in the development of ancient Near Eastern civilizations, where fundamental knowledge and skills in writing, agriculture, and metallurgy were established. Religions, philosophies, the language of trade, systems of urban development, of diplomatic exchange – all these germinated within this geographical area. Today, Syria has more than 10,000 archaeological sites, scattered across the country’s cities, towns and villages, both inhabited and uninhabited areas. Tragically, the rich heritage of Syria has been seriously damaged by the armed conflict that begun in 2011. Today, open fighting is not yet fully over in the northwestern Idlib region, but over the last 9 years, shelling, looting and demolition have decimated archaeological sites and museum collections. Heritage destruction has been widely accounted for and disseminated as a consequence of war, but there are other, indirect reasons for its loss and damage, related to its pre-conflict management. This chapter provides a critique of these indirect reasons, examining a tranche of inadequacies and failings in pre-conflict heritage management frameworks and processes, before exploring the situation contemporaneous with the conflict. An examination of the relationship between local communities in Syria and the country’s heritage resources is presented in both parts, and provides an opportunity for crucial future engagement.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Article 1 of the UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural Heritage, 1972.
- 3.
The qobahs of Sheikh Hilal were built by farmers in the 1920s on Byzantine foundations, their thick walls and small windows making them comfortable across the seasons. Twelve were restored by local people using local materials – mud, straw, untreated wood and limewash.
- 4.
The analysis here is based on the author’s personal observations while working at the DGAM. As a student on placement at the directorate, the author participated in several archaeological missions as well as working with DGAM staff on exhibitions in the National Museum in Damascus (coinciding with Damascus becoming the Arabic Capital of Culture in 2008). During this period, the author also worked in the Directorate of Excavations as part of the administrative team.
- 5.
The collection and analysis of data on the limitations of the Syrian Law of Antiquities was carried out by the author as an observer of, and as an employee embedded in, the DGAM over a 6-year period.
- 6.
Article 1 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 7.
See, for example, the definitions in the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO, 1972).
- 8.
See Article 19 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 9.
See Articles 18, 19, 20 and 21 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 10.
See Article 22 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 11.
See Article 23 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 12.
See Articles 20 and 22 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 13.
The author witnessed several conflicts between local people and employees of the DGAM, arising because people were not allowed to build close to the archaeological areas.
- 14.
All the data in this section was collected by the author through interviews with DGAM staff and direct observation.
- 15.
The Italian Agency for Development Cooperation, Lebanon and Syria, Beirut Office (n.d.).
- 16.
There were a few examples of positive relationships between archaeologists and local people, especially with long-term research programmes, where local workers became mediators between the two parties, and dialogue assisted the archaeologists in their interpretation of cultural material (see Gillot, 2010, p. 13).
- 17.
These articles are available on the website of the International Committee of the Red Cross, in their Customary International Humanitarian Law database (ICRC, 2005).
- 18.
For more information, see the Focus Raqqa Project, (n.d.).
- 19.
For more information, see Digitizing the Official Inventory of the Museum of Deir ez-Zor Project (Deir ez Zor Project, n.d.).
- 20.
The International Observatory of Syrian Cultural Heritage has been monitoring and assessing the situation of cultural heritage in Syria since the beginning of the conflict in March 2011. Its actions are part of the Emergency Safeguarding of the Syrian Cultural Heritage Project, launched in March 2014.
References
Abdelkader, A., Darabseh, F., & Aloudat, A. S. (2016). The management of natural and cultural heritage: A comparative study from Jordan. The Historic Environment: Policy & Practice, 7(1), 3–24.
Abdulkarim, M., Kutiefan, L., Hamouda, M. K., & Hadi, R. A. (2016). Syrian archaeological heritage: Five years of crisis 2011–2015. Syrian Ministry of Culture, Directorate General of Antiquities & Museums.
Adeyat Archaeological Society. (n.d.). Al Adeyat Archaeological Society [Arabic]. http://www.aladeyat.org. Accessed 03 June 2017.
Admin. (2015, October 6). Heritage and culture of Syria. My Love Story with Palmyra. [Facebook]. https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=963119000378131&id=439242389432464&substory_index=0. Accessed 20 June 2017.
Aga Khan Development Network. (n.d.). Aga Khan Development Network. https://www.akdn.org/publications/hcp_syria.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2017.
Akkermans, P. M. M. G., & Schwartz, G. M. (Eds.) (2003). The Archaeology of Syria. From Complex Hunter-gatherers to Early Urban Societies (c. 16,000–300 BC). Cambridge World Archaeology Series, Cambridge University Press.
Al Quntar, S., & Daniels, B. I. (2016). Responses to the destruction of Syrian cultural heritage: A critical review of current efforts. International Journal of Islamic Architecture, 5(2), 381–397.
Al Quntar, S., Hanson, K., Daniels, B., & Wegener, C. (2015). Responding to a cultural heritage crisis: The example of the safeguarding the heritage of Syria and Iraq project. Near Eastern Archaeology, 78(3), 154–160.
Ali, C. (2013). Syrian heritage under threat. Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies, 1(4), 351–366.
Alkateb, M. (2013). Non-traditional education using cultural heritage: A case study from Syria. International Journal of Education Through Art, 9(2), 189–204.
Al-Khateeb, F. (2015, May 22). Thousands flee Palmyra, UNHCR steps up aid [UNHCR Website]. http://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2015/5/555f386b9/thousands-flee-palmyra-unhcr-steps-aid.html. Accessed 20 June 2016.
Alkhatib, R. & Yazaji, R. (2010). Cultural policies in Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestine, Syria and Tunisia. An introduction. Cultural Resource, European Cultural Foundation: Bookman Studies.
Al-Maqdissi, M. (2014). Syrian Archaeology ‘Scale of the Scandal’ [ASOR Blog]. http://asorblog.org/2014/07/08/syrian-archaeology-scale-of-the-scandal/. Accessed 30 Jan 2017.
APSA. (2012). Association for the protection of Syrian Archaeology. [Facebook, Arabic/French]. https://www.facebook.com/apsa2011/. Accessed 25 May 2020.
ASOR. (n.d.). Cultural heritage initiatives. http://www.asor.org/chi. Accessed 21 May 2020.
ASOR Cultural Heritage Initiatives. (2016). UPDATE Palmyra: Digital Globe satellite imagery shows the construction of a military base within the protected zone of the UNESCO World Heritage Site [ASOR Cultural Heritage Initiatives website]. http://www.asor-syrianheritage.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ASOR-CHI-Palmyra-Military-Base-Report-r.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2017.
Association of Friends of Damascus. (n.d.). The Association of Friends of Damascus [Arabic]. http://damascus-friends.com/. Accessed 3 June 2017.
Brodie, N. (2015). Syria and its regional neighbors: A case of cultural property protection policy failure? International Journal of Cultural Property, 22, 317–335.
Brodie, N., & Sabrine, I. (2017). The illegal excavation and trade of Syrian cultural objects: A view from the ground. Journal of Field Archaeology, 43(1), 44–84.
Buccellati, G. (2014a). In the Eye of the storm [The Urkesh Eco-Archaeological Park Project website]. http://www.urkesh.org/urkesh-park/Eye.html. Accessed 20 June 2017.
Buccellati, G. (2014b). Development [The Urkesh Eco-Archaeological Park Project website]. http://www.urkesh.org/urkesh-park/development.html. Accessed 20 June 2017.
Chirikure, S., & Pwiti, G. (2008). Community involvement in archaeology and cultural heritage management: An assessment from case studies in Southern Africa and elsewhere. Current Anthropology, 49(3), 467–485.
Cleere, H. (2010). Management plans for archaeological sites: A world heritage template. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, 12(1), 4–12.
Cunliffe, E. (2012). Damage to the soul: Syria’s cultural heritage in conflict. Global Heritage Fund.
Cunliffe, E. (2016, April 4). Ordinary Syrians are risking their lives to protect their cultural heritage. The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/ordinary-syrians-are-risking-their-lives-to-protect-their-cultural-heritage-57841. Accessed 20 June 2017.
Cunliffe, E., Muhesin, N., & Lostal, M. (2016). The destruction of cultural property in the Syrian conflict: Legal implications and obligations. International Journal of Cultural Property, 23(1), 1–31.
Cunliffe, E., Sabrine, I., & Fischer, G. (2022). The extraordinary, ordinary Syrian: Syria’s heritage protectors.
Dagher, S. (2014, April 25). Amid Devastation of Aleppo, Syria, Archaeological Museum Fights to Preserve Heritage. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/amid-devastation-of-aleppo-syria-archaeological-museum-fights-to-preserve-heritage-1398456094. Accessed 10 June 2017.
Damm, C. (2005). Archaeology, ethnohistory, and oral traditions: Approaches to the indigenous past. Norwegian Archaeological Review, 38(2), 73–87.
Danti, M. D., & Ali, C. (2014). ASOR Syrian heritage initiative (SHI): Planning for safeguarding heritage sites in Syria, weekly reports 16–17. ASOR Cultural Heritage Initiatives. http://www.asor.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/ASOR_CHI_Weekly_Report_16–17r.pdf. Accessed 30 Jan 2017.
Davies, S. M., Paton, R., & O’Sullivan, T. J. (2013). The museum values framework: A framework for understanding organizational culture in museums. Museum Management and Curatorship, 28(4), 345–361.
Deir ez-Zor Project. (n.d.). Digitizing the Inventory of the Museum of Deir ez-Zor (Syria). https://digitmusdeir.geschkult.fu-berlin.de/html/. Accessed 23 May 2020.
DGAM. (2007). Completing new draft law on protection of Syrian archaeological heritage 21.12.2013. http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?p=314&id=1114. Accessed 11 Feb 2017.
DGAM. (2013a, October 27). Recent photos of some archaeological sites in Forgotten Cities, Idlib. Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums [website]. http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=314&id=1082. Accessed 10 June 2017.
DGAM. (2013b, March 11). Gunmen attack Heracla warehouse and robbed hundreds of artifacts. Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums [website]. http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=239&id=1051. Accessed 10 June 2017.
DGAM. (n.d.-a). Periodicals issued by the general directorate of antiquities and museums. Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums [website]. http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php?m=302. Accessed 14 Jan 2017.
DGAM. (n.d.-b). Structure of the Syrian museums. Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums [website]. Available at: http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php?m=309. Accessed 12 Jan 2017.
DGAM. (n.d.-c). Our heritage empowers us to shape our present and future. Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums [website]. http://www.dgam.gov.sy/. Accessed 18 May 2020.
Doumas, C. G. (2013). Managing the archaeological heritage: The case of Akrotiri, Thera (Santorini). Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, 15(1), 109–120.
Dunmore, C. (2016, March 2). How art is helping Syrian refugees keep their culture alive. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2016/mar/02/art-helping-syrian-refugees-keep-culture-alive. Accessed 01 Feb 2017.
Focus Raqqa Project. (n.d.). Raqqa City of Culture. Safeguarding historical and archaeological heritage. http://www.focusraqqa.com/focusraqqa/index.php?lang=en#home. Accessed 23 May 2020.
Gerstenblith, P. (2016). The destruction of cultural heritage: A crime against property or a crime against people? John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law, 15(3), 336–393.
Gillot, L. (2008). La mise en valeur des sites archéologiques: un rapprochement entre archéologie, tourisme et développement. Le cas de la Syrie. Unpublished Thesis. Université Libre de Bruxelles.
Gillot, L. (2010). Towards a socio-political history of archaeology in the Middle East: The development of archaeological practice and its impacts on local communities in Syria. Bulletin of the History of Archaeology, 20(1), 4–16.
Grimwade, G., & Carter, B. (2000). Managing small heritage sites with interpretation and community involvement. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 6(1), 33–48.
Heritage for Peace. (n.d.). Heritage for peace. http://www.heritageforpeace.org/. Accessed 21 May 2020.
ICRC. (2005). The customary ILH database: Rules and practices. https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/home. Accessed 23 May 2020.
Italian Agency for Development Cooperation, Lebanon and Syria, Beirut Office, Syria. (n.d.). Projects which are suspended. Italian Agency for Development Cooperation [website]. http://www.aicsbeirut.org/portal/en-US/syria/19/. Accessed 30 Jan 2017.
Italian Archaeological Expedition at Qatna. (2006). The Conservation of the Royal Palace. Italian Archaeological Excavation [website]. http://www.qatna.org/en-conservation.html. Accessed 18 May 2020.
Jamieson, A. (Ed.) (2014). Collections at risk: Sustainable strategies for managing near eastern archaeological collections. Workshop. Proceedings, 9th ICAANE, Basel 2014, Vol. 1.
Kanjou, Y. (2014). The Syrian cultural heritage tragedy: Cause, effect and approaches to future protection. Journal of Disaster Mitigation for Historical Cities, 8, 271–278.
Kanjou, Y. (2018). The role of the local community and museums in the renaissance of Syrian cultural heritage. Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies, 6(4), 375–391.
Kanjou, Y., & Tsuneki, A. (2016). A history of Syria in one hundred sites. Archaeo Press.
Lamb, F. (2015, April 25). Is the Phoenix Rising from the Ashes in Syria? Counter Punch. https://www.counterpunch.org/2015/07/29/is-the-phoenix-rising-from-the-ashes-in-syria/. Accessed 10 June 2017.
Le patrimoine archéologique syrien en danger. (2011, July 27). Le patrimoine archéologique syrien en danger [Facebook]. https://www.facebook.com/Archeologie.syrienne/.
Leckie, L., Cunliffe, E., & Varoutsikos, B. (2017). Towards a protection of the Syrian cultural heritage: A summary of the international responses. Volume IV (October 2015 – December 2016). Heritage for Peace.
Loosley, E. (2005). Archaeology and cultural belonging in contemporary Syria: The value of archaeology to religious minorities. World Archaeology, 37(4), 589–596.
McCall, V., & Gray, C. (2014). Museums and the ‘new museology’: Theory, practice and organizational change. Museum Management and Curatorship, 29(1), 19–35.
McManamon, F. (2000). The protection of archaeological resources in the United States: Reconciling preservation with contemporary society. In F. P. McManamon & A. Hatton (Eds.), Cultural resource management in contemporary society: Perspectives on managing and presenting the past (pp. 160–167). Routledge.
Perini, S., & Cunliffe, E. (2015). Towards a protection of the Syrian cultural heritage: A summary of the international responses. Volume III (September 2014 – September 2015). Heritage for Peace. http://www.heritageforpeace.org/news/reports-towards-protection-syrian-cultural-heritagesummary-international-responses/.
SANA. (n.d.). An important tourist and heritage development project, Sheikh Hilal village in Hama Badia [Arabic]. Discover Syria [website]. http://www.discover-syria.com/news/3052. Accessed 20 June 2017.
Sarkis, M. (2014, October 29). Syria’s cultural heritage under threat. Qantara.de [website]. https://en.qantara.de/content/syrias-cultural-heritage-under-threat-virtually-nothing-is-left. Accessed 20 Jan 2017.
SHAP. (n.d.) Syrian Heritage Archive Project [website]. https://project.syrian-heritage.org/en/. Accessed 18 May 2020.
Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222. (1963/1999). Published in the official gazette no.11. https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/syrie_dec222_engtof.pdf. Accessed 12 Jan 2017.
UN Refugee Agency. (2016, Mar 15). Syria conflict at 5 years: the biggest refugee and displacement crisis of our time demands a huge surge in solidarity. UNHCR News [website]. http://www.unhcr.org/news/press/2016/3/56e6e3249/syria-conflict-5-years-biggest-refugee-displacement-crisis-time-demands.html%20. Accessed 18 Jan 2017.
UNESCO. (1972). Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage. Adopted by the General Conference at its seventeenth session, Paris 16 November 1972. https://whc.unesco.org/archive/convention-en.pdf.
UNESCO. (2013, June 20). Syria’s six world heritage sites placed on list of world heritage in danger. UNESCO [website]. https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1038. Accessed 30 May 2020.
UNESCO. (2017a, March 8). UNESCO hosts first international coordination meeting for the recovery of Aleppo’s heritage. UNESCO News [website]. https://en.unesco.org/news/unesco-hosts-first-international-coordination-meeting-recovery-aleppo-s-heritage. Accessed 12 May 2017.
UNESCO. (2017b, January 19). UNESCO reports on extensive damage in first emergency assessment mission to Aleppo. UNESCO [website]. https://en.unesco.org/news/unesco-reports-extensive-damage-first-emergency-assessment-mission-aleppo. Accessed 12 May 2017.
UNESCO. (n.d.-a). Observatory of Syrian cultural heritage, reports. UNESCO [website]. https://en.unesco.org/syrian-observatory/damage-assesmentreports?title=&field_institution_tid=All&date_filter%5Bvalue%5D&field_report_tags_tid_1=&order=field_institution&sort=asc. Accessed 30 May 2020.
UNESCO. (n.d.-b). Observatory of Syrian cultural heritage, the emergency safeguarding of the Syrian cultural heritage project. UNESCO [website]. http://en.unesco.org/syrian-observatory/emergency-safeguarding-syrian-cultural-heritage-project. Accessed 12 Jan 2017.
Van der Auwera, S. (2013). International law and the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict: Actual problems and challenges. The Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society, 43, 175–190.
World Vision. (2017). Syria refugee crisis: Facts you need to know. World Vision [website]. https://www.worldvision.org/refugees-news-stories/syria-refugee-crisis-war-facts. Accessed 18 Jan 2017.
Zobler, K. A. (2011). Syrian National Museums: Regional politics and the imagined community. In Contested cultural heritage (pp. 171–191). Springer.
Zobler, K. A. (2014). Dead cities and living communities: Syrian archaeological heritage management. In Encyclopedia of global archaeology (pp. 7194–7199). Springer.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my colleague Dr. Emma Cunliffe from Newcastle University, her valuable comments and feedback were of immense help. I am very thankful to Dr. Juan Jose Ibanez, from the Spanish National Council and Dr. Gabriel Alcalde from Girona University for their advice. I would also like to express my deepest appreciation to all my DGAM colleagues who provided me with the needed information.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sabrine, I. (2022). The Management of Syrian Archaeological Heritage Before and During the Syrian Conflict: A Comparison Study. In: Badran, A., Abu-Khafajah, S., Elliott, S. (eds) Community Heritage in the Arab Region. One World Archaeology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07446-2_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07446-2_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-07445-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-07446-2
eBook Packages: HistoryHistory (R0)