Abstract
The chapter examines the system of local government in Cape Verde, discusses the decentralization process in the country since the independence, seen as an incremental process of institutional capacity building at the sub-national level, and compares it to other Lusophone African states. The chapter thus seeks to explore the nature of the current local government system in Cape Verde, how it changed over the years, since the independence, and how these changes affected the role of local government in the governance of cities.
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Notes
- 1.
For an informed account of the local administration in the Portuguese colonies until the early twentieth century, see, among others, Moura (1913); Ulrich (1908); Vasconcellos (1921), and Caetano (1934). The relevant colonial legislation in this period was published in Boletim Oficial de Cabo Verde (several years).
- 2.
Guinea-Bissau in September 1974.
- 3.
For instance, the land urban policy (e.g. expropriation) continued regulated by Law 2030, 22/6/1948. Law No. 71/VI/2005, 27 June, issued by the National Parliament, authorized central government to adopt new legislation to replace the 1948 legislation. In other words, this colonial law of 1948, important for spatial planning, was only replaced 3 decades after the independence. The 2005 law also authorized the revision of Law 85/IV/93, 16 July on spatial planning. This led to the adoption of the first spatial planning system fully structured in 2006. For more information about the spatial planning system, see Chap. 4 in this book.
- 4.
Constitutional Law No. 7/74, de 27 de julho (Estatuto Orgânico do Estado de Cabo Verde).
- 5.
The liberation/colonial war was conducted by the PAIGC for Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde. There were plans for joining the two states that emerged from the end of the Portuguese colonial rule. This unification plan ended on 14 November 1980 with the military coup in Bissau led by Nino Vieira. The PAIGC, as a bi-national party, also ended on this occasion. A new political party emerged in Cape Verde, the PAICV—Partido Africano da Independência de Cabo Verde. For an overview of this process, see, among others, Fernandes (2007).
- 6.
The law on the political organization of the state (Lei da Organização Política do Estado—LOPE) was approved on 5 July 1975, the day of the independence of Cape Verde. This law on the political organization of the state was changed in 1977 by Law 2/77 of 9 April 1977, which established a commission with 7 members of the National Assembly for the preparation of a Constitutional Law for Cape Verde.
- 7.
This first constitution, adopted in 1980, was revised 3 times: in 1981; in 1988; and in 1990 (Law 2–81, 14 February; Constitutional Law 1-III-88, 17 December; Constitutional Law 2-III-90, 29 September) and replaced in 1992 by a new Constitution, which introduced the multi-party political regime (Constitutional Law 1-IV-92, 25 September).
- 8.
The relevant legislation post-independence is published in Boletim Oficial da República de Cabo Verde (several years). For a broad and compared perspective of the post-independence decentralization process in the five Lusophone African countries, see Silva (2016a).
- 9.
See, among others, Alves Furtado (2016) for an analysis and reflection on the first four decades of independence.
- 10.
Decret law 58/75, 13 December (Decreto-lei 58/75, 13 de Dezembro) extinguished the Administrative Commission in the Municipalities in Cape Verde. In Portugal, the equivalent Administrative Commissions in the Municipalities were only replaced in early 1977, after the first local government elections that took place in December 1976.
- 11.
Constitution 1980, Part V: ‘...’. Important to highlight here is the fact that creation of political parties was not possible. Article 4 of the Constitution stated that the PAICV was the leading political force of the society and the State. Therefore, local government was in this period also under the direct leadership of the PAICV, the leading political force.
- 12.
Law 48/III/89, 13 July (Lei 48/III/89, 13 de julho).
- 13.
Constituição da República de Cabo Verde, 1992 (Constitutional Law 1-IV-92, 25 September). The 1992 Constitution was revised 3 times; in 1995; in 1999; and in 2010 (Constitutional Law 1/IV/95, 13 November; Constitutional Law 1/V/99, 23 November; Constitutional Law 1/VII/2010, 3 May; and rectified in 1999).
- 14.
Movimento para a Democracia (MpD) registered in 1990 (https://cne.cv/partido-politico/).
- 15.
The previous article 4 of the 1980 Constitution, which granted the PAICV the role of leading political force of the society and the state, was removed. There are currently (2021) eight political parties registered in the CNE and in the Constitutional Court: PAICV—Partido Africano da Independência de Cabo Verde (1981)—http://paicv.cv/repositorio-de-documentos/; MpD—Movimento para a Democracia (1990); PP—Partido Popular de Cabo Verde; PSD—Partido Social Democrata; PTS—Partido do Trabalho e da Solidariedade; UCID—União Caboverdiana Independente e Democrática; PCD—Partido da Convergência Democrática; PRD—Partido da Renovação Democrata (https://cne.cv/partido-politico/; https://www.tribunalconstitucional.cv/index.php/lista-de-partidos-politicos/).
- 16.
The legal framework of political parties in Cape Verde—Law 102/V/99, 19 April 1999 (Lei No. 102/V/99, 19 de Abril) replaced Law 86/III/90, 6 October 1990 (Lei No. 86/III/90, 6 de Outubro).
- 17.
Decret law 52-A/90, 4 July 1990 changed the Local Government Act.
- 18.
Decret law 123/91, 20 September 1991—changed the Local Government Act.
- 19.
Law 14/91, 30 December 1991—approved the statute of municipal councillors (‘Estatuto dos eleitos municipais’).
- 20.
Approved by the Constitutional Law No. 1/IV/92 (Lei Constitucional No. 1/IV/92, de 25 de Setembro 1992). Instituted, for the first time in the history of Cape Verde, the democratic rule of law in the country, anchored in the dignity of the human person and in the fundamental rights and freedoms, in accordance with the best international practices. The independence of the judiciary and the autonomy of the local government are other central aspects of the II Republic period in Cape Verde.
- 21.
- Law 134/IV/95, 3 July (Lei-quadro dos municípios).
- 22.
Law on the Organization of Municipal Services (1990); Law on the creation and extinction of municipalities (1990); law on associations of municipalities (1990); law on the transfer of competences in the field of public transport (1994); law on the transfer of social promotion to municipalities (1994); law of local government finance (1998); and numerous other legal acts until the end of this first decade of democratic local self-government in Cape Verde.
- 23.
The law on decentralization (‘Lei-Quadro da Descentralização Administrativa’) maintained the municipality as the key tier of local government but also introduced two other tiers in the local government system: the administrative regions, as the upper tier of local government, and the Parish (Freguesia), as a tier below the municipality. None of these two tiers have been implemented on the ground, so far.
- 24.
For instance, on the collection of municipal taxes (2000); on aspects of labour organization in the municipal administration (2000); on municipal symbols (2003).
- 25.
There are 24 cities (‘Cidade’) and 19 towns (‘Vilas’) in Cape Verde (INE, 2020). Law No. 77/VII/2010, 23 August 2010 established the legal regime of the 7 categories of human settlements in Cape Verde: Povoação; Cidade (‘City’); Vila (town); Bairro; Povoado; Aldeia; Aglomerado populacional. Decret law No. 47/2015, 15 September 2015—promoted 19 settlements to the category of ‘Vila’ (‘Town’), the second highest category.
- 26.
The proportion of poor population reached 35.2% in 2015 (INE, 2020), with a higher percentage for children (44.4% for 0–4 years; 43.1% for 5–14 years).
- 27.
The multi-party political system in Cape Verde comprises currently 3 main political parties with representation in the National Parliament: Movimento para a Democracia (MpD); Partido Africano da Independência de Cabo Verde (PAICV); and União Caboverdiana Independente e Democrática (UCID). The MpD won the two first legislative elections in 1991 and 1996. The following 3 national elections were won by the PAICV (2001; 2006; and 2011). The MpD won the last two national elections in 2016 and 2021. Cruz (2012) examines the political ideologies prevailing in these parties between 1975 and 2010. In sum, Cape Verde developed a bi-partisan stable political system (PAICV and MpD), also reflected at the level of municipal elections. This bi-partisan character is an important difference when compared with São Tomé and Príncipe, as Sanches (2016, 2017) shows.
- 28.
According to the constitution, local government comprises the municipalities. Other categories of local government, above or below the municipality, can be established by law. Until now, this possibility has not been used.
- 29.
Constitution of the Republic of Cape Verde, second Ordinary revision, 2010 (Constituição da República de Cabo Verde (1ª Revisão Extraordinária, 1995; 1ª Revisão Ordinária, 1999; 2ª Revisão Ordinária, 2010). Praia: Assembleia Nacional).
- 30.
The 14 municipalities: Ribeira Grande; Paul; Porto Novo; São Vicente; Tarrafal de São Nicolau; Sal; Boavista; Maio; Tarrafal de Santiago; Santa Catarina; Santa Cruz; Praia; Fogo; Brava.
- 31.
Local elections, as all the other elections in Cape Verde, are organized and supervised by the National Election Commission (CNE—Comissão Nacional de Eleições) created in 1994 as a permanent and independent board (Law 112/IV/94) replacing the previous system introduced in 1984 (Law 46/II/84) (CNE, n/d). The evidence seems to suggest, after several electoral acts, that municipal elections in Cape Verde are second-order elections, as Pereira et al. (2019) argue.
- 32.
Law 134/IV/95, 3 July 1995 (Lei No. 134/IV/95, 3 de Julho—Estatuto dos Municípios).
- 33.
Law 14/IV/91, 30 December (Lei No. 14/IV/91, 30 de Dezembro—Estatuto dos eleitos municipais).
- 34.
Electoral Code—Law No. 92/V/99, 8 February; Law No. 56/VII/2010, 9 March.
- 35.
Law 68/IX/2019, 16 November—parity in this context means a minimum of 40% of each sex for the Municipal Assembly and Municipal Executive Council (‘câmara municipal’). The two first places in the list must be of different sexes and shall not be more than two of the same sex consecutively in the ordering of the remaining places in these lists.
- 36.
Law No. 42/VII/2009, 27 July (law on public administration staff, applied to the municipalities), and the Decret Legislative No. 13/97, 1 July 1997 (about the top local civil servants). In 2016 were introduced changes in the law of 2009 but were later reversed. Continues to be applied the 2009 law.
- 37.
The staff expenditure in the municipality cannot exceed 50% of the total current revenue of the municipality.
- 38.
This possibility has already been employed (e.g. in 2016, the National Association of Municipalities hosted 6 members of staff transferred from central government to reinforce its technical capacity).
- 39.
‘Ouvidoria’ is a form of ‘Ombudsman’, someone that is available to hear the opinion and complaints of the local citizens, establishing links between the citizens and the local councillors.
- 40.
InforPress, 19/1/2021 (‘Fogo: Câmara dos Mosteiros socializa projecto de criação de Ouvidoria Municipal’).
- 41.
Law 91/VIII/2015, 1 July (Law on the national and local referendum).
- 42.
In this case, it is named ‘Popular Initiative’.
- 43.
It is considered approved the question object of the referendum if it obtains most of the affirmative votes and if the number of voters is not less than 35% of the number of the registered electors.
- 44.
Law 79/VI/2005, 5 September, establishes the financial system of local government in Cape Verde. It replaced the previous local finance law (Law 76/V/98, 7 December 1998). In extreme situations (state of calamity), local government in Cape Verde can benefit of special support from central government, as defined in Decret Law No. 68/2009, 28 December.
- 45.
These tariffs and prices concern, for instance, the following activities: water for human consumption; energy; waste collection, deposit, and treatment; sanitation networks; urban public transports; school transport; any other service provided through concessions; and so on.
- 46.
The ANMP (National Association of Portuguese Municipalities) lists a total of 115 twinning agreements active in 2021 between Portuguese Municipalities and Cape Verdean Municipalities. Of these twinnings, the oldest was established in 1983 and the most recent in 2020. Tarrafal of Santiago with 14 twinnings is the municipality with more agreements. It is followed by numerous other also with a high number of twinning agreements with Portuguese municipalities (Praia with 10; São Filipe with 10; Mindelo/São Vicente with 12, etc.). Twinning with municipalities of countries with a strong presence of Cape Verdean migrants is also relevant, as referred in van Ewijk and Baud (2009) and Hoetjes (2009) for the case of Netherlands.
- 47.
Fund for the Environment: https://famb.cv/ (https://famb.cv/index.php/sobre-nos/historia). The President of the ANMCV, in 2015, Manuel Pina, Mayor of Ribeira Grande de Santiago, required an inspection by the Audit Court on the use of the Fund for the Environment (Expresso das Ilhas, 22/09/2015). Another reason for complaint was the fact that, since 2011, Municipalities were no longer eligible for the ‘Ecological Tax’, which had been until then an important fiscal source for the municipalities. In 2019, the Audit Court pointed out irregularities in the governance of this fund and did not approve the annual account of the fund for 2012, 2013, and 2014 (Sessão de Conferência da 2.ª Secção de 14 de Junho de 2019—https://www.tribunalcontas.cv/).
- 48.
As emphasized by the President of the National Association of Municipalities of Cape Verde (ANMCV), among similar claims made by other municipal councillors on this issue.
- 49.
The CRPs—Comissões Regionais de Parceiros—were considered by Central Government to be an important partner for the implementation of the actions of the PNLP—Programa Nacional de Luta Contra a Pobreza (National Program Against Poverty), at the local and regional levels (Government Portal, 27/5/2011).
- 50.
The economic and financial crisis associated with the COVID-19 pandemic had also severe impacts on the municipal finance system and on its capacity to fulfil entirely its competences. However, it is out of the aims of this chapter to examine the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the response of local government to it in Cape Verde. The pandemic and the associated restrictions are still active at the time of the writing of this chapter.
- 51.
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (municipal revenue/population) = 0.96.
- 52.
The Gini coefficient of the population by municipality is 0.55, and the Gini coefficient of the surface of the municipalities is 0,39.
- 53.
Coefficient of variation = standard deviation/mean.
- 54.
As stated by the President of the ANMCV, Herménio Fernandes, regarding transparency and accountability in the municipalities (InforPress—Agência Caboverdiana de Notícias, 3 June 2021).
- 55.
The President of the Audit Court, João da Cruz Silva, stated, after a meeting with the ANMCV, that changes in the municipal budgeting practices were needed to improve transparency in municipal governance (e.g. recommended the publication of the municipal budget in the official journal—the Boletim Oficial da República de Cabo Verde—as well as other important documents, such as municipal regulations). The need of internal audits is also recognized as an important measure to be implemented for the sake of transparency at the municipal level (InforPress, 11/6/2021). In its 2018 Annual Activity Report, the Audit Court refers that three regional Municipal Associations, 5 municipalities, and 4 municipal water and sanitation autonomous services did not submit the respective 2017 accounts to the Audit Court (Tribunal de Contas 2019).
- 56.
Constitution, article 239°. and Law 50/VI/2004, 13 September—law on municipal associations.
- 57.
Associação Nacional de Municípios Cabo-Verdianos (ANMCV). It was established on 22 September 1995. Its first Congress took place in that date in the city of Mindelo (source: https://anmcv.cv/nossahistoria/). Its statutes were approved in 1996 and revised in 2016.
- 58.
Source: https://anmcv.cv/
- 59.
AMS—Associação de Municípios de Santiago (https://es-es.facebook.com/AMS-Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o-dos-Munic%C3%ADpios-de-Santiago-784068835032198/); Associação dos Municípios das ilhas do Fogo e Brava; Associação dos Municípios de Santo Antão (https://www.facebook.com/associacaodemunicipiossantoantao/).
- 60.
It is the case of the following enterprises: Agua de Santiago—AdS (https://www.ads.cv/), an inter-municipal public enterprise in the island of Santiago; its stakeholders are the municipalities of the island of Santiago and its headquarters is located in Assomada, in the municipality of Santa Catarina; ÁguaBrava, SA—Empresa Intermunicipal de Água do Fogo e da Brava, in the islands of Fogo and Brava, with headquarters in São Filipe, Island of Fogo; the stakeholders are the municipalities of São Filipe, Mosteiros, and Brava (https://www.facebook.com/aguabravasa/); in island of Maio was created, in 2019, an enterprise ‘Água e Electricidade do Maio‘, with 51% of the capital for the municipality of Maio and 49% for the SDTIBM—Sociedade do Desenvolvimento Turístico das Ilhas Boa Vista e Maio, replacing the previous ‘Serviço Autónomo de Água e Saneamento do Maio’; in October 2021, the process for the creation of the inter-municipal enterprise in the water and sanitation sector in the island of Santo Antão (‘Sociedade Intermunicipal de Água e Saneamento Básico de Santo Antão’) was not yet concluded. For the President of the Municipal Association of Santo Antão, the creation of this inter-municipal enterprise is necessary and urgent (Declaration of Aníbal Fonseca, InforPress—Agência Caboverdiana de Notícias, 2 October 2021).
- 61.
The last national legislative election took place on 18 April 2021, for a new period of 5 years. The MpD obtained an overall majority in the National Parliament (MpD elected 38 deputies; the PAICV elected 30; and the UCID 4 deputies). Voted 57.57% of the 225,761 electors. The VIII Constitutional Government took office on 20 May 2021.
- 62.
Resolution 1/2018, 10 January (Resolução No. 1/2018, de 10 de janeiro).
- 63.
Law No. 76/VII/2010, 23 August 2010 introduced the Ecological Tax (‘Taxa Ecológica’).
- 64.
Law No. 11/IX/2017, 4 July.
- 65.
Central Government announced in the VIII Congress of the ANMCV in December 2016 that such transference would take place in 2017.
- 66.
Law 10/IX/2017, 4 July (Lei n°10/IX/2017, de 4 de julho changed the previous system of 2010).
- 67.
Decree legislative 4/2018 (Decreto-legislativo No. 4/2018, 6 July—Bases Gerais da Política de Ordenamento do Território e Planeamento Urbanístico). Replaced the previous Decreto-legislativo No. 6/2010, 21 June, which had previously replaced the first Planning Act (Decreto-legislativo No. 1/2006, 13 February). Through these three successive planning acts, it becomes clear the existence of a regular and consistent move towards increased levels of municipal autonomy in the spatial planning sphere. Advances in the decentralization in this field are also well reflected in the National Policy of Spatial Planning and Urbanism (Resolution No. 24/2020—Política Nacional de Ordenamento do Território e Urbanismo). In the case of the spatial planning legislation, see for a deeper analysis and discussion Chaps. 4 and 7 in this book.
- 68.
Planos Estratégicos Municipais de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (PEMDS). These plans were prepared under the coordination of the PNUD and received the support from Luxembourg. Eight municipalities (Mosteiros, Santa Catarina do Fogo, São Filipe, Ribeira Grande de Santiago, São Salvador do Mundo, Ribeira Grande de Santo Antão, Porto Novo, and Paul) presented the respective PEMDS on 11 October 2018, in Cidade da Praia. Currently, the 22 municipalities have completed the respective PEMDS aligned with the ODS and the national Plano Estratégico de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (PEDS).
- 69.
Government Program 2021–2026, pp. 53.
- 70.
The current statute of the municipalities is regulated in the Law No. 134/IV/95, 3 July 1995. Somehow linked to this is the Statute of the Cities, which currently is regulated by Decret Law No. 15/2011, 21 February 2011.
- 71.
The current Local Finance Law is the Law No. 79/VI/2005, 5 September.
- 72.
Government Program 2021–2026, pp. 53.
- 73.
Government Program 2021–2026, pp. 53. The current law on administrative decentralization is the Law No. 69/VII/2010, 16 August 2010.
- 74.
For instance, meeting between the President of the ANMCV, Herménio Fernandes (Mayor of São Miguel), and the President of the National Assembly, Austelino Correia (InforPress—Agência Caboverdiana de Notícias, 3 June 2021). Or the call for more funds for the municipalities made by the President of the ANMCV to Central Government (InforPress, 6 January 2021).
- 75.
According to the constitution, it is possible to consider other local government tiers besides the municipality. In 2010, the law on decentralization (Law No. 69/VII/2010, 16 August 2010) introduced two new categories of local government: above the municipality—the administrative region; below or a subdivision of the municipality—the Parish (Freguesia). Until now, there was no proposal for the creation of parishes. The proposal for the creation of the meso (regional)-tier will be discussed again in the new legislature (2021–2026) after being rejected in the previous legislature. See also: Ministério do Ambiente, Habitação e Ordenamento do Território (2013).
- 76.
Governo de Cabo Verde (2018). PEDS—Plano Estratégico de Desenvolvimento Sustentável 2017/2021, pp. 93–94.
- 77.
The PEDS refers, for instance, decentralization of competences in the agriculture, environment, and housing sectors, and reinforcement of its capacities, and improvements in the spatial planning system.
- 78.
The current constitution was approved by Constitutional Law No. 1/IV/92 (Lei constitucional No. 1/IV/92, de 25 de setembro 1992). Constitution, art. 234—the executive responds to the assembly (1. A organização das autarquias locais compreende uma assembleia eleita, com poderes deliberativos e um órgão colegial executivo responsável perante aquela.)
- 79.
The creation of ‘Centros de Desenvolvimento Social’ as a form of State Local Administration (administrative de-concentration) replaced the competence of social promotion assigned to the municipality. The same happened with the creation of ‘Centro de Juventude’ replacing the competence assigned to the municipality for the support of the youth. Years later, in 2016, this drift towards centralization was interrupted and these competences were again assigned to the municipalities and those structures were extinguished as forms of State Local Administration and integrated in the municipalities. On 1 December 2016, Central Government signed with the municipalities the terms for the transference of the ‘Centros de Juventude’ and the competences of the ‘Centros do Desenvolvimento Social’ for the municipalities of Cape Verde, an act that took place during the VIII Congress of the National Association of Municipalities of Cape Verde (ANMCV), in Cidade da Praia. With this attitude, central government (IX Legislature, 2016–2021) did one more step in its goal of decentralization in the field of youth policy and in the municipalization of the social protection services.
- 80.
- 81.
That seems to be a commitment made by Central Government in its Program for 2021–2026, when it refers that ‘the Government will promote the conditions for planning the development of urban systems of all municipalities...’ (pp. 53). It is also the case of the commitment expressed by central government regarding the support to the municipalities for enabling them to develop their ‘Climate Resilience Plans’, a new planning tool, not yet present within the formal structure of the national spatial planning system in Cape Verde, as well as the new policy approaches to climate risks, as shown by Costa (2020) in the case of innovative policies being designed and implemented in Cape Verde for sustainable drought response.
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Nunes Silva, C. (2022). Local Government in Cape Verde 1970–2020. In: Nunes Silva, C. (eds) Local Governance in Cape Verde . Local and Urban Governance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05847-9_3
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