Abstract
Nanomedicine refers to medical products developed using nanotechnology and has the potential to radically change how we diagnose and treat cancer. While the use of nanomedicines has increased in the clinic dramatically, problems persist over the lack of an agreed definition, creating difficulties for safety (including toxicity profiles), governance and transparency. This review assesses the utility of nanomedicines in healthcare, clarifying key concepts in the literature, examining past, present and future nanomedicines and analyzing gaps in current regulations. Advances in nanomedicine offer unique opportunities including programmable and controllable nanoparticles (nanobots) that work cooperatively (nanoswarms), rather than individually, to achieve a targeted, personalized, and intelligent cancer treatment. Swarm behavior can be designed using a systems approach as in silico modelling has now advanced to the point of being a useful tool for selecting nanoparticles that optimize treatment outcomes. We need to understand what the first-in-human clinical trial of nanoswarms should/will look like, and anticipate the associated ethical questions that may arise. To aid clinical adoption of nanoswarms in cancer treatment, a harmonized nanomedicine vocabulary is needed alongside a robust, specific and overarching regulatory framework that can guide researchers, regulators and other key stakeholders.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
World Health Organization: Cancer. https://www.who.int/health-topics/cancer#tab=tab_1. Accessed 03 Dec 2021
Cancer Research UK: What is cancer?. https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/what-is-cancer. Accessed 03 Dec 2021
National Cancer Institute: What Is Cancer?. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer#definition. Accessed 03 Dec 2021
Hock, S.C., Ying, Y.M., Wah, C.L.: A review of the current scientific and regulatory status of nanomedicines and the challenges ahead. PDA J. Pharm. Sci. Technol. 65, 177–195 (2011)
Lu, W., Yao, J., Zhu, X., Qi, Y.: Nanomedicines: redefining traditional medicine. Biomed. Pharmacother. 134 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOPHA.2020.111103
Stillman, N.R., Kovacevic, M., Balaz, I., Hauert, S.: In silico modelling of cancer nanomedicine, across scales and transport barriers. NPJ Comput. Mater. 6:1. 6, 1–10 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41524-020-00366-8
Grand View Research Inc: Nanomedicine market size worth $350.8 Billion By 2025 CAGR: 11.2%. (2017)
Hartshorn, C.M., Grodzinski, P., Farrell, D., Morris, S.A., Fedorova-Abrams, N., Liu, C., Panaro, N., Christ, R.M., Prabhakar, U.: Cancer Nanotechnology Plan 2015. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health (2015)
Hauert, S., Bhatia, S.N.: Mechanisms of cooperation in cancer nanomedicine: towards systems nanotechnology. Trends Biotechnol. 32, 448–455 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TIBTECH.2014.06.010
Pharmaceutical Market: https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=HEALTH_PHMC. Accessed 22 Nov 2021
Mikulic, M.: Global pharmaceutical industry—statistics and facts. https://www.statista.com/topics/1764/global-pharmaceutical-industry/#dossierKeyfigures. Accessed 22 Nov 2021
Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry: Global pharmaceutical market. https://www.abpi.org.uk/facts-figures-and-industry-data/global-pharmaceutical-market/. Accessed 22 Nov 2021
Vasile, C.: Polymeric nanomaterials: recent developments, properties and medical applications. In: Vasile, C. (ed.) Polymeric Nanomaterials in Nanotherapeutics, pp. 1–66. Elsevier (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813932-5.00001-7
Boisseau, P., Levy, L., Letourneur, D., Mauberna, P.: Strategic Research and Innovation Nanomedicine Agenda Industry Patient. European Technology Platform for Nanomedicine (2016)
Anselmo, A.C., Mitragotri, S., Samir Mitragotri, C.: Nanoparticles in the clinic. Bioeng. Transl. Med. 1, 10–29 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/BTM2.10003
Anselmo, A.C., Mitragotri, S.: Nanoparticles in the clinic: An update post COVID‐19 vaccines. Bioeng. Transl. Med. 6, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/BTM2.10246
U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Nanotechnology—Over a Decade of Progress and Innovation (2020)
Clinicaltrials.gov: Search of: nanoparticle Recruiting, Not yet recruiting, Available, Active, not recruiting Studies Cancer—List Results—ClinicalTrials.gov. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=nanoparticle&cond=Cancer&Search=Apply&recrs=b&recrs=a&recrs=d&recrs=c&age_v=&gndr=&type=&rslt=. Accessed 10 Feb 2022
Swana, M., Blee, J., Stillman, N., Ives, J., Hauert, S.: Swarms: the next frontier for cancer nanomedicine—Supplementary Material (2022). https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.6077149
Search of: nanoparticle Recruiting, Not yet recruiting, Available, Active, not recruiting Studies—List Results—ClinicalTrials.gov, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=nanoparticle&recrs=abcd. Accessed 20 Nov 2021
Wilhelm, S., Tavares, A.J., Dai, Q., Ohta, S., Audet, J., Dvorak, H.F., Chan, W.C.W.: Analysis of nanoparticle delivery to tumours. Nat. Rev. Mater. 1(5), 1–12 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/natrevmats.2016.14
Đorđević, S., Gonzalez, M.M., Conejos-Sánchez, I., Carreira, B., Pozzi, S., Acúrcio, R.C., Satchi-Fainaro, R., Florindo, H.F., Vicent, M.J.: Current hurdles to the translation of nanomedicines from bench to the clinic. Drug Deliv. Transl. Res. 12(3), 500–525 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/S13346-021-01024-2
Thi, T.T.H., Suys, E.J.A., Lee, J.S., Nguyen, D.H., Park, K.D., Truong, N.P.: Lipid-based nanoparticles in the clinic and clinical trials: from cancer nanomedicine to COVID-19 Vaccines. Vaccines 9, (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/VACCINES9040359
Feynman, R.P.: There is plenty of room at the bottom. Eng. Sci. 23, 22–36 (1960)
Kay, E.R., Leigh, D.A.: Rise of the molecular machines. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54, 10080–10088 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/ANIE.201503375
Drexler, K.: Molecular directions in nanotechnology. Nanotechnology 2, 113–118 (1991)
Baroncini, M., Casimiro, L., de Vet, C., Groppi, J., Silvi, S., Credi, A.: Making and operating molecular machines: a multidisciplinary challenge. Chem. Open 7, 169–179 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/OPEN.201700181
Sluysmans, D., Fraser Stoddart, J.: Growing community of artificial molecular machinists. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 115, 9359–9361 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1813973115
Kassem, S., van Leeuwen, T., Lubbe, A.S., Wilson, M.R., Feringa, B.L., Leigh, D.A.: Artificial molecular motors. Chem. Soc. Rev. 46, 2592–2621 (2017)
Amir, Y., Ben-Ishay, E., Levner, D., Ittah, S., Abu-Horowitz, A., Bachelet, I.: Universal computing by DNA origami robots in a living animal. Nat. Nanotechnol. 9, 353–357 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2014.58
Manjunath, A., Kishore, V.: The promising future in medicine: nanorobots. Biomed. Sci. Eng. 2, 42–47 (2014). https://doi.org/10.12691/BSE-2-2-3
Ackerman, E.: Robotic Micro-Scallops Can Swim Through Your Eyeballs—IEEE Spectrum. https://spectrum.ieee.org/robotic-microscallops-can-swim-through-your-eyeballs. Accessed 26 Nov 2021
Qiu, T., Lee, T.C., Mark, A.G., Morozov, K.I., Münster, R., Mierka, O., Turek, S., Leshansky, A.M., Fischer, P.: Swimming by reciprocal motion at low Reynolds number. Nat. Commun. 5, (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/NCOMMS6119
Khalil, I.S.M., Dijkslag, H.C., Abelmann, L., Misra, S.: MagnetoSperm: a microrobot that navigates using weak magnetic fields. Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, 223701 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4880035
Jang, B., Gutman, E., Stucki, N., Seitz, B.F., Wendel-García, P.D., Newton, T., Pokki, J., Ergeneman, O., Pané, S., Or, Y., Nelson, B.J.: Undulatory locomotion of magnetic multilink nanoswimmers. Nano Lett. 15, 4829–4833 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.NANOLETT.5B01981/SUPPL_FILE/NL5B01981_SI_007.AVI
Orozco, C.A., Liu, D., Li, Y., Alemany, L.B., Pal, R., Krishnan, S., Tour, J.M.: Visible-light-activated molecular nanomachines kill pancreatic cancer cells. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b21497
Jang, J., Lim, D.-H., Choi, I.-H.: The impact of nanomaterials in immune system. Immune Netw. 10, 85 (2010). https://doi.org/10.4110/IN.2010.10.3.85
Bionaut Labs: FDA Grants Humanitarian Use Device Designation to Bionaut Labs for Treatment of Dandy Walker Syndrome—Bionaut Labs. https://bionautlabs.com/fda-grants-humanitarian-use-device-designation-to-bionaut-labs-for-treatment-of-dandy-walker-syndrome/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022
Wang, Q., Zhang, L.: External power-driven microrobotic swarm: from fundamental understanding to imaging-guided delivery. ACS Nano 15, 149–174 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/ACSNANO.0C07753
Yu, J., Jin, D., Chan, K.F., Wang, Q., Yuan, K., Zhang, L.: Active generation and magnetic actuation of microrobotic swarms in bio-fluids. Nat. Commun. 2019 10:1. 10, 1–12 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13576-6
Koleoso, M., Feng, X., Xue, Y., Li, Q., Munshi, T., Chen, X.: Micro/nanoscale magnetic robots for biomedical applications. Mater. Today Bio. 8, 100085 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MTBIO.2020.100085
Azizipour, N., Avazpour, R., Rosenzweig, D.H., Sawan, M., Ajji, A.: Evolution of biochip technology: a review from lab-on-a-chip to organ-on-a-chip. Micromachines 11, 1–15 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/MI11060599
Ali, J., Cheang, U.K., Martindale, J.D., Jabbarzadeh, M., Fu, H.C., Jun Kim, M.: Bacteria-inspired nanorobots with flagellar polymorphic transformations and bundling. Sci. Rep. 7(1), 1–10 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14457-y
Koudelka, K.J., Pitek, A.S., Manchester, M., Steinmetz, N.F.: Virus-Based Nanoparticles as Versatile Nanomachines. 2, 379–401 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-virology-100114-055141
Chen, A.Y., Deng, Z., Billings, A.N., Seker, U.O.S., Lu, M.Y., Citorik, R.J., Zakeri, B., Lu, T.K.: Synthesis and patterning of tunable multiscale materials with engineered cells. Nat. Mater. 13, 515–523 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat3912
Shin, S.R., Migliori, B., Miccoli, B., Li, Y.C., Mostafalu, P., Seo, J., Mandla, S., Enrico, A., Antona, S., Sabarish, R., Zheng, T., Pirrami, L., Zhang, K., Zhang, Y.S., Wan, K.T., Demarchi, D., Dokmeci, M.R., Khademhosseini, A.: Electrically driven microengineered bio-inspired soft robots. Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach, Fla.). 30, (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/ADMA.201704189
Hu, M., Ge, X., Chen, X., Mao, W., Qian, X., Yuan, W.E.: Micro/nanorobot: a promising targeted drug delivery system. Pharmaceutics 12, 1–18 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/PHARMACEUTICS12070665
Zhou, H., Mayorga-Martinez, C.C., Pané, S., Zhang, L., Pumera, M.: Magnetically driven micro and nanorobots. Chem Rev 121, 4999–5041 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.CHEMREV.0C01234
Wang, J., Xiong, Z., Tang, J.: The encoding of light-driven micro/nanorobots: from single to swarming systems. Adv. Intell. Syst. 3, 2000170 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/AISY.202000170
Aghakhani, A., Yasa, O., Wrede, P., Sitti, M.: Acoustically powered surface-slipping mobile microrobots. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 117, 3469–3477 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1920099117/VIDEO-10
Kriegman, S., Blackiston, D., Levin, M., Bongard, J.: Kinematic self-replication in reconfigurable organisms. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 118. https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.2112672118/-/DCSUPPLEMENTAL (2021)
Blackiston, D., Lederer, E., Kriegman, S., Garnier, S., Bongard, J., Levin, M.: A cellular platform for the development of synthetic living machines. Sci. Robot. 6, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIROBOTICS.ABF1571
Kriegman, S., Blackiston, D., Levin, M., Bongard, J.: A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 117, 1853–1859 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1910837117/-/DCSUPPLEMENTAL
Saadeh, Y., Vyas, D.: Nanorobotic applications in medicine: current proposals and designs. Am J Robot. Surg. 1, 4 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1166/AJRS.2014.1010
Boonrong, P., Kaewkamnerdpong, B.: Canonical PSO based nanorobot control for blood vessel repair. Int. J. Biomed. Biol Eng 5, 428–478 (2011)
Alhafnawi, M., Hauert, S., O’Dowd, P.: Self-Organised saliency detection and representation in robot swarms. IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett. 6, 1487–1494 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/LRA.2021.3057567
Molins, P., Stillman, N., Hauert, S.: Trail formation using large swarms of minimal robots. 50, 693–710 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/01969722.2019.1677336
Stillman, N.R., Balaz, I., Tsompanas, M.A., Kovacevic, M., Azimi, S., Lafond, S., Adamatzky, A., Hauert, S.: Evolutionary computational platform for the automatic discovery of nanocarriers for cancer treatment. NPJ Comput. Mater. 7, 150 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/S41524-021-00614-5
Akçan, R., Aydogan, H.C., Yildirim, M.Ş, Taştekin, B., Sağlam, N.: Nanotoxicity: a challenge for future medicine. Turk. J. Med. Sci. 50, 1180 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3906/SAG-1912-209
Lewinski, N., Colvin, V., Drezek, R.: Cytotoxicity of nanopartides. Small 4, 26–49 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200700595
Arora, S., Rajwade, J.M., Paknikar, K.M.: Nanotoxicology and in vitro studies: the need of the hour. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 258, 151–165 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TAAP.2011.11.010
Xue, H.Y., Liu, S., Wong, H.L.: Nanotoxicity: a key obstacle to clinical translation of siRNA-based nanomedicine. Nanomedicine (London, England). 9, 295 (2014). https://doi.org/10.2217/NNM.13.204
Jackson, S.E., Chester, J.D.: Personalised cancer medicine. Int. J. Cancer 137, 262–266 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/IJC.28940
Krzyszczyk, P., Acevedo, A., Davidoff, E.J., Timmins, L.M., Marrero-Berrios, I., Patel, M., White, C., Lowe, C., Sherba, J.J., Hartmanshenn, C., O’Neill, K.M., Balter, M.L., Fritz, Z.R., Androulakis, I.P., Schloss, R.S., Yarmush, M.L.: The growing role of precision and personalized medicine for cancer treatment. Technology 6, 79 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1142/S2339547818300020
Ceylan, H., Yasa, I.C., Kilic, U., Hu, W., Sitti, M.: Translational prospects of untethered medical microrobots. Prog. Biomed. Eng. 1, 012002 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1091/AB22D5
Schmidt, C.K., Medina-Sánchez, M., Edmondson, R.J., Schmidt, O.G.: Engineering microrobots for targeted cancer therapies from a medical perspective. Nat. Commun. 11, 1–18 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19322-7
Liu, D., Wang, T., Lu, Y.: Untethered microrobots for active drug delivery: from rational design to clinical settings. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 11, 2102253 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/ADHM.202102253
Dixit, S.S., Luqman, N.: Nanobots: development and future. Int. J. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2, (2017). https://doi.org/10.15406/IJBSBE.2017.02.00037
Novotný, F., Wang, H., Pumera, M.: Nanorobots: machines squeezed between molecular motors and micromotors. Chem. 6, 867–884 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMPR.2019.12.028
Birchley, G., Ives, J., Huxtable, R., Blazeby, J.: Conceptualising surgical innovation: an eliminativist proposal. HCA J. Health Philos. Policy 28, (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/S10728-019-00380-Y
Hua, S., de Matos, M.B.C., Metselaar, J.M., Storm, G.: Current trends and challenges in the clinical translation of nanoparticulate nanomedicines: Pathways for translational development and commercialization. Front Pharmacol 9, (2018). https://doi.org/10.3389/FPHAR.2018.00790/FPHAR_09_00790_PDF.PDF
Murday, J.S., Siegel, R.W., Stein, J., Wright, J.F.: Translational nanomedicine: Status assessment and opportunities. Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med. 5, 251–273 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2009.06.001
Satalkar, P., Elger, B.S., Hunziker, P., Shaw, D.: Challenges of clinical translation in nanomedicine: a qualitative study. Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med. 12, 893–900 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2015.12.376
Mudshinge, S.R., Deore, A.B., Patil, S., Bhalgat, C.M.: Nanoparticles: emerging carriers for drug delivery. Saudi Pharm. J. 19, 129–141 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JSPS.2011.04.001
Pudlarz, A., Szemraj, J.: Nanoparticles as carriers of proteins, peptides and other therapeutic molecules. Open Life Sci. 13, 285 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1515/BIOL-2018-0035
Zoubari, G., Staufenbiel, S., Volz, P., Alexiev, U., Bodmeier, R.: Effect of drug solubility and lipid carrier on drug release from lipid nanoparticles for dermal delivery. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. : Off. J. Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Pharmazeutische Verfahrenstechnik e.V. 110, 39–46 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EJPB.2016.10.021
Kim, J.H., Kim, Y.S., Kim, S., Park, J.H., Kim, K., Choi, K., Chung, H., Jeong, S.Y., Park, R.W., Kim, I.S., Kwon, I.C.: Hydrophobically modified glycol chitosan nanoparticles as carriers for paclitaxel. J. Control. Release: Off. J. Control. Release Soc. 111, 228–234 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCONREL.2005.12.013
Barker, P.J., Branch, A.: The interaction of modern sunscreen formulations with surface coatings. Prog. Org. Coat. 62, 313–320 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PORGCOAT.2008.01.008
Steel Direct: Prevention of sunscreen damage. https://cdn.dcs.bluescope.com.au/download/technical-bulletin-tb-37-prevention-of-sunscreen-damage. Accessed 11 Dec 2021
Tran, D.T., Salmon, R.: Potential photocarcinogenic effects of nanoparticle sunscreens. Australas. J. Dermatol. 52, 1–6 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1440-0960.2010.00677.X
Jacobs, J.F., van de Poel, I., Osseweijer, P.: Sunscreens with titanium dioxide (tio2) nano-particles: a societal experiment. NanoEthics 4, 103 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/S11569-010-0090-Y
Carbonell, R.: Fresh concern over nano-particles hidden in sunscreen. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-03-05/fresh-concern-over-nano-particles-in-sunscreen/4552522. (2013)
D’Silva, J., Bowman, D.M.: To label or not to label?—it’s more than a nano-sized question. Eur. J. Risk Regul. 1, 420–427 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1867299X00000891
Gruére, G.P.: Labeling nano-enabled consumer products. Nano Today 6, 117–121 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NANTOD.2011.02.005
Akin, H., Yeo, S.K., Wirz, C.D., Scheufele, D.A., Brossard, D., Xenos, M.A., Corley, E.A.: Are attitudes toward labeling nano products linked to attitudes toward GMO? Exploring a potential ‘spillover’ effect for attitudes toward controversial technologies 6, 50–74 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/23299460.2018.1495026
Shi, J., Kantoff, P.W., Wooster, R., Farokhzad, O.C.: Cancer nanomedicine: progress, challenges and opportunities. Nat. Rev. Cancer 17, 20–37 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/NRC.2016.108
Patil, R.M.: Nanomedicine for early diagnosis of breast cancer. Nanomedicines Breast Cancer Theranostics 153–173 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820016-2.00008-2
Lytton-Jean, A.K.R., Kauffman, K.J., Kaczmarek, J.C., Langer, R.: Cancer nanotherapeutics in clinical trials. Cancer Treat. Res. 166, 293–322 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16555-4_13
US Food and Drug Administration: Classification of Products as Drugs and Devices and Additional Product Classification Issues FDA, https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/classification-products-drugs-and-devices-and-additional-product-classification-issues. Accessed 03 Feb 2022
Min, Y., Caster, J.M., Eblan, M.J., Wang, A.Z.: Clinical translation of nanomedicine. Chem. Rev. 115, 11147 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.CHEMREV.5B00116
Muthu, M.S., Leong, D.T., Mei, L., Feng, S.S.: Nanotheranostics—application and further development of nanomedicine strategies for advanced theranostics. Theranostics 4, 660 (2014). https://doi.org/10.7150/THNO.8698
Klein, K., Stolk, P., de Bruin, M.L., Leufkens, H.G.M., Crommelin, D.J.A., de Vlieger, J.S.B.: The EU regulatory landscape of non-biological complex drugs (NBCDs) follow-on products: observations and recommendations. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 133, 228–235 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EJPS.2019.03.029
Gaspar, R.S., Silva-Lima, B., Magro, F., Alcobia, A., da Costa, F.L., Feio, J.: Non-biological complex drugs (NBCDs): complex pharmaceuticals in need of individual robust clinical assessment before any therapeutic equivalence decision. Front. Med. 7, 590527 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3389/FMED.2020.590527
Schellekens, H., Stegemann, S., Weinstein, V., de Vlieger, J.S.B., Flühmann, B., Mühlebach, S., Gaspar, R., Shah, V.P., Crommelin, D.J.A.: How to regulate nonbiological complex drugs (NBCD) and their follow-on versions: points to consider. AAPS J. 16, 15–21 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1208/S12248-013-9533-Z
Ives, J.: A method of reflexive balancing in a pragmatic, interdisciplinary and reflexive bioethics. Bioethics 28, 302–312 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1111/BIOE.12018
Quigley, M., Ayihongbe, S.: Everyday cyborgs: on integrated persons and integrated goods. Med. Law Rev. 26, 276–308 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1093/MEDLAW/FWY003
Harrison, P., Wolyniak, J.: The history of ‘transhumanism.’ Notes Queries 62, 465–467 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1093/NOTESJ/GJV080
Royal Academy of Engineering: Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties (2004)
Fischer, S.: Regulating nanomedicine: new nano tools offer great promise for the future?if regulators can solve the difficulties that hold development back. IEEE Pulse 5, 21–24 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1109/MPUL.2013.2296797
Pinker, S.: The moral imperative for bioethics. https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2015/07/31/the-moral-imperative-for-bioethics/JmEkoyzlTAu9oQV76JrK9N/story.html (2015)
Yu, J., Wang, B., Du, X., Wang, Q., Zhang, L.: Ultra-extensible ribbon-like magnetic microswarm. Nat. Commun. 9, 1–9 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05749-6
Soares, S., Sousa, J., Pais, A., Vitorino, C.: Nanomedicine: principles, properties, and regulatory issues. Front. Chem. 6, 360 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3389/FCHEM.2018.00360
Bawa, R., Johnson, S.: The ethical dimensions of nanomedicine. Med. Clin. North Am. 91, 881–887 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MCNA.2007.05.007
Demetzos, C.: Regulatory framework for nanomedicines. Pharm. Nanotechnol. 189–203 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0791-0_7
Tinkle, S., Mcneil, S.E., Mühlebach, S., Bawa, R., Borchard, G., Barenholz, Y.C., Tamarkin, L., Desai, N.: Nanomedicines: addressing the scientific and regulatory gap. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1313, 35–56 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1111/NYAS.12403
Chan, V.S.W.: Nanomedicine: an unresolved regulatory issue. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 46, 218–224 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YRTPH.2006.04.009
Vishakha Tambe, Maheshwari, R., Chourasiya, Y., Choudhury, H., Gorain, B., Tekade, R.K.: Chapter 18. clinical aspects and regulatory requirements for nanomedicines. In: Tekade, R.K. (ed.) In Advances in Pharmaceutical Product Development and Research, Basic Fundamentals of Drug Delivery, pp. 733–752. Elsevier (2019)
Mühlebach, S., Borchard, G., Yildiz, S.: Regulatory challenges and approaches to characterize nanomedicines and their follow-on similars. Nanomedicine 10, 659–674 (2015). https://doi.org/10.2217/NNM.14.189
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Swana, M., Blee, J., Stillman, N., Ives, J., Hauert, S. (2022). Swarms: The Next Frontier for Cancer Nanomedicine. In: Balaz, I., Adamatzky, A. (eds) Cancer, Complexity, Computation. Emergence, Complexity and Computation, vol 46. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04379-6_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04379-6_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-04378-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-04379-6
eBook Packages: Mathematics and StatisticsMathematics and Statistics (R0)