Abstract
Carl-Ludwig Conning explores a previously undocumented aspect of the Swedish reception of Percy Shelley. In 1892, the literary critic Hellen Lindgren published the first major Swedish analysis of Shelley along with Fröding’s translation of Shelley’s ‘Hymn to Intellectual Beauty’. Conning’s chapter investigates the cultural-historical context for Lindgren’s introduction of Shelley to Swedish readers and reads Lindgren’s account of Shelley alongside the literary manifestos of the Swedish writers Fröding and von Heidenstam. Conning shows how Lindgren found in Shelley a particularly compelling integration of idealism and materialism, thereby offering a potential resolution to a dichotomy which was much debated in Swedish literature at the time as part of an ongoing transition from national Romanticism toward Naturalism. Conning also provides a full English translation of Lindgren’s essay.
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Notes
- 1.
First published in the first volume of the literary magazine Ord och bild: illustrerad månadsskrift [Word and picture: illustrated monthly magazine], it would be republished in 1894, with few and insignificant emendations in wording, in Lindgren’s essay collection Vittra stormän: kritiker och porträtt [Literary greats: criticisms and portraits].
- 2.
Hellen Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, in Ord och bild: illustrerad månadsskrift, ed. Karl Wåhlin (Stockholm: P. A. Nordstedt och Söner, 1892), 354–55 (my translation [all subsequent references to Lindgren’s essay are in my translation]).
- 3.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 359. ‘The Sensitive-Plant’ has generated a particularly strong academic and popular reception in Denmark too, with Georg Brandes, in 1875, describing ‘Mimosen’ [The Mimosa] as ‘yndigt som Alt, hvad der kommer fra Shelleys Pen’ [graceful as all, which comes from Shelley’s pen]. Georg Brandes, Hovedstrømninger i det 19de Aarhundredes Litteratur: Forelæsninger holdte ved Kjøbenhavns Universitet i Foraarshalvaaret 1874 og Efteraarshalvaaret 1875 af Georg Brandes; Naturalismen i England; Byron og hans Gruppe (Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, 1875), 78 (my translation). And Sophus Claussen’s 1906 translation of the poem, titled ‘Den følende Blomst’, as Karsten Engelberg has argued, ‘has become the most frequently published Danish translation of any Shelley text’. Karsten Engelberg, ‘Shelley in the Nordic Countries: Would They Be Seeking Him if He Had Not Been Found?’, in The Reception of P. B. Shelley in Europe, edited by Michael Rossington and Susanne Schmid (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 161.
- 4.
Thomas Medwin, preface to Journal of the Conversations of Lord Byron (Paris: L. Baudry, 1824) xxij. Fäderneslandet, ‘Fragmenter efter Lord Byron’, 23 February 1832.
- 5.
Dagligt Allehanda, July 24, 1841 (my translation).
- 6.
In ‘Anglo-Swedish Literary Relations 1867–1900: The Fortunes of English Literature in Sweden’ (1970), Brian Downs figures Lindgren one of few who had to some degree, at least, included English literature in his popular criticism of modern literature. Karsten Engelberg has argued that in Scandinavia at the time, ‘English was considered the language of commerce rather than culture’. Engelberg, ‘Shelley in the Nordic Countries’, 161.
- 7.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 355.
- 8.
Risberg outlines the German writers’ names in his preface, amongst which we find most of the canonical German Romantics.
- 9.
Albert Nilsson, Svensk romantik: den platonska strömningen (Lund: C. W. K. Gleerups förlag, 1916), 372 (my translation). Nilsson’s dismissal of Stagnelius’s poem as ‘nothing but’ a ‘transform[ation]’ of Schelling’s Identitätsphilosophie recalls the similar case of Coleridge and the plagiarism controversy in Britain. However, for Nilsson, Stagnelius is merely symptomatic of the widespread influence of Schelling on the Swedish Romantics, because unlike the British Romantics, ‘our Romantics’, he argues, ‘saw in Schelling a renewer and perfecter of the platonic idealism’. Nilsson, Svensk romantik, 2 (my translation). For a comprehensive study on the British nineteenth century reception of Schelling, in the works of Coleridge and beyond, see Whiteley, Schelling’s Reception in Nineteenth-Century British Literature (2018).
- 10.
Lotten von Kraemer to Hellen Lindgren.
- 11.
Hellen Lindgren, preface to Sveriges vittra storhetstid 1730–1850 (Stockholm: P. A Nordstedt och Söner, 1895), III (my translation [italics in original]).
- 12.
Lindgren, preface to Sveriges vittra storhetstid 1730–1850, III.
- 13.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 355.
- 14.
Lindgren to Karl Wåhlin (my translation).
- 15.
Lindgren to Rydberg (my translation).
- 16.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 356.
- 17.
Percy Bysshe Shelley, ‘On Life’, in Percy Bysshe Shelley Selected Poems and Prose, edited by Jack Donovan and Cian Duffy (London: Penguin Random House, 2016), 619.
- 18.
Verner von Heidenstam, Renässans: några ord om en annalkande ny brytningstid inom litteraturen (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag, 1889), 27 (my translation).
- 19.
Strindberg to Heidenstam, Skovlyst, August 22, 1888, in Brev 1884–1890: Verner von Heidenstam, August Strindberg, introduction by Magnus von Platen, commentary by Gudmund Fröberg (Stockholm: Wahlström och Widstrand, 1999), 214 (my translation).
- 20.
Heidenstam to Strindberg, Olshammar, October 6, 1889, in Brev 1884–1890: Verner von Heidenstam, August Strindberg, 233 (my translation). The Swedish word for ‘imagination’ is ‘inbillningskraft’, related etymologically to the German Einbildungskraft, that key term of Romantic theory in Kant.
- 21.
Heidenstam, Renässans, 44 (my translation). Heidenstam’s metaphor picks up the following lines from Romantic-period Swedish poet Erik Johan Stagnelius’s (1793–1823) 1820 poem ‘Om Tingens Natur’: ‘Ej vi se hur blomstren i sommarängarne strida/För sitt organiska lif med den råa yttre Naturen/Eller hur axets frö, det gyllne, mystiska kornet/Öfver vintrar och död triumfer firar I mullen.’ (79–82).
- 22.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 354.
- 23.
Lindgren to Wåhlin, 1892. In his letter, Lindgren confusingly refers to Fredin as the translator of ‘Ode to the West Wind’. Since he was not, however, the slip may be an unconscious one, Lindgren tarring the two with the same brush, or a deliberate one, a conscious dig at both at once. This correspondence is also discussed in Sven Rinman’s 1942 article ‘Kring en brevsamling och en årgång’, in Ord och bild: illustrerad månadsskrift (Stockholm: Wahlström och Widstrand, 1942), 9–24.
- 24.
Lindgren to Wåhlin, 1892.
- 25.
Fröding writes to the editor of Ord och bild, Karl Wåhlin (1861–1937), that, ‘After long and almost hopeless striving, I have put together something which resembles a translation of the ethereal Shelleyan hymn’, and that ‘it is appreciated in almost all parts by Mr Lindgren’. Gustaf Frödings brev 2, 1892–1910, edited by Germund Michanek and Ingvald Rosenblad (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag, 1982), 46, 48 (my translation).
- 26.
Lindgren, Percy Bysshe Shelley, 358. The word ‘nerves-people’ is Lindgren’s coinage, see also note 62.
- 27.
In relation to the Romantic period, Diego Saglia finds that ‘[i]n a comprehensively interlinguistic and cultural perspective, translation is one of the principal means by which cultures appropriate ideas and artefacts, and subsequently rework and redeploy them’. Diego Saglia, European Literatures in Britain, 1815–1832: Romantic Translations (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2018), 8.
- 28.
Gustaf Fröding, ‘Naturalism och romantik: några reflexioner med anledning av Zolas “La Bête Humaine”’, in Samlade skrifter av Gustaf Fröding: nionde delen prosa 1 (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag, 1921), 15 (my translation).
- 29.
Fröding, ‘Naturalism och romantik’, 16 (my translation). The Norwegian scholar, translator and Shelley critic, Christen Collin would reiterate a similar criticism in his Kunsten og moralen [The art and the morality] (1894), where he takes issue with the creative and selective modes of representation of the Naturalists, arguing that, ‘[i]t cannot be naturally scientific to amplify precisely those for Life harmful Passions and particularly to admire the power of Nature when it is devastating’. Christen Collin, Kunsten og moralen (Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandels Forlag, 1894), 105 (my translation [italics in original]).
- 30.
Gustaf Fröding to Hedda Fröding, Magneskog, 9 March 1889, in Gustaf Frödings brev 1, 1877–1891, edited by Germund Michanek and Ingvald Rosenblad (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag, 1981), 136 (my translation).
- 31.
Gustaf Fröding to Cecilia Fröding, Görlitz, 23 October 1889, in Gustaf Frödings brev 1, 1877–1891, 155 (my translation).
- 32.
Oscar Levertin, ‘Verner von Heidenstams skaldskap’, in Oscar Levertin Kritisk prosa, selection and introduction by Ulf Linde and edited by Per Rydén (Stockholm: Atlantis, 2007), 121 (my translation).
- 33.
Gustaf Fröding to Cecilia Fröding, Görlitz, 23 November 1889, 155 (my translation).
- 34.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 359.
- 35.
Lindgren’s emphasis on Shelley’s ‘Englishness’ is evidence of his specifically late nineteenth century-shaped conception of national romanticisms as regionally defined. However, as Cian Duffy has argued in his introduction to the volume Romantic Norths: Anglo-Nordic Exchanges, 1770–1842, in this period, such a national designation must be problematized by the fact that ‘romantic nationalism in Britain and the Nordic countries … was premised upon cultural exchange, upon the perception and the construction of similarity, rather than upon the demarcation of difference, upon a sense of regional rather than national cultural identity’. Hence in a larger European context, being ‘“British” or “Swedish” or “Danish”’ meant, ‘in one very significant respect’, ‘to be northern as opposed to southern or eastern’. Cian Duffy, ‘Introduction’ in Romantic Norths: Anglo-Nordic Exchanges, 1770–1842 ed. Cian Duffy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 4. Thus, defined against precisely the German (or French, as elsewhere in Lindgren’s essay), we would be forced to consider, to some extent, Lindgren’s term ‘English’ as something of a critical anachronism, which might be replaced by ‘northern’.
- 36.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 355.
- 37.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 355–56.
- 38.
Percy Bysshe Shelley, ‘A Defence of Poetry’, in Percy Bysshe Shelley Selected Poems and Prose, edited by Jack Donovan and Cian Duffy (London: Penguin Random House, 2016), 673.
- 39.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 356.
- 40.
Lindgren’s understanding of Shelley’s ideal and material underpinnings correlates to a remarkable extent with modern scholarship. In Shelley and the Revolutionary Sublime (2005) Cian Duffy has argued against the traditional understanding of Shelley as shifting from materialism to idealism, arguing rather that materialism and idealism are both parts of Shelley’s ‘epistemological skepticism’ (7). And James Engell, in his major study on the intellectual discourse on the imagination, The Creative Imagination: Enlightenment to Romanticism (1981), ties Shelley’s idealism to ‘England’s hard-line empiricists’ (261).
- 41.
Brandes, Hovedstrømninger, 12–13 (my translation).
- 42.
Christen Collin, Studier og portræter (Kristiania: Det Norske Aktieforlag, 1901), 170 (my translation). Collin’s translation of ‘The Cloud’, rendered as ‘Skyen’ [The Sky], precedes and doubles as title of his essay.
- 43.
Brandes, Hovedstrømninger, 20–21 (my translation).
- 44.
Shelley, ‘Defence’, 672–73.
- 45.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 359.
- 46.
In contrast to Lindgren’s claim, this poem has received comparatively sparing commentary by later critics. For an overview of commentary, see ‘The Sensitive-Plant’ in The Poems of Shelley, vol. 3, 1819–1820, edited by Jack Donovan, Cian Duffy, Kelvin Everest, and Michael Rossington (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014).
- 47.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 359.
- 48.
Percy Bysshe Shelley, ‘The Sensitive-Plant’, part second, lines 33–36, 306.
- 49.
Shelley, ‘The Sensitive-Plant’, part third, lines 30–41, 309.
- 50.
Shelley, ‘The Sensitive-Plant’, conclusion, lines 21–24, 316.
- 51.
‘Från konstvärlden’, Göteborgsposten, 20 September 1892 (my translation).
- 52.
Hallandsposten, 28 September 1892 (my translation).
- 53.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 356.
- 54.
Lindgren, ‘Percy Bysshe Shelley’, 360. A word on the translation: I have rendered Lindgren’s essay in as close an English idiom, lexically, syntactically, and grammatically, to the original Swedish as possible. A few linguistic peculiarities following from this reflect similar peculiarities in Lindgren’s style. The translation has, however, benefitted from the fact that Lindgren had, as Ruben Berg has suggested, based his essay style ‘most closely after English patterns’ (620; my translation).
- 55.
I have translated this quotation back into English verbatim from Lindgren’s Swedish, in which he loosely paraphrases the following lines from ‘Adonais: an Elegy on the Death of John Keats, Author of Endymion, Hyperion etc.’ (1821): ‘A pardlike Spirit beautiful and swift—/A Love in desolation masked;—a Power/Girt round with weakness;—’ (XXXII, 280–82).
- 56.
Lindgren uses the Old Swedish noun betyg here, which is derived from the Old Swedish verb betyga, meaning to testify, or to vouch (in favor) for someone’s or something’s character. I have chosen to render it as ‘testimonials’ here as it correlates most closely to the act of judging and determining something’s or someone’s qualities, cf. OED’s definition: ‘testimonial, n. 4, and 5’. Judgment or assessment would be more modern English cognates.
- 57.
The adjective phrase ‘of woman born’ [af kvinna född], also used by Shelley, is highly intertextual. See, for example, Job 14:1; Macbeth, IV. i. 79, V. viii. 3, 12, 14; Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ‘The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere’, lines 367, 370; Laon and Cythna [The Revolt of Islam], canto eight, XV, line 3331.
- 58.
Swedish in original.
- 59.
Lindgren gives here the Old Swedish adjective verklig in the determinate form, det verkliga, denoting something that exists objectively, known to humans through the sensuous faculties. The English words real and sensuous are, and were historically when Lindgren wrote, cognates with the Swedish reell and sinnlig, both of which are synonyms to the Swedish det verkliga. There is no English cognate word to the Swedish verklig in this context closer than either of these two synonyms.
- 60.
This phrase is in English in the Swedish text.
- 61.
The phrase ‘fagging system’ is in English in the Swedish text. Lindgren refers to the Stockholm military academy, Karlberg, which adopted an educational and social system akin to that of the British fagging system, historically exercised at, for instance, Eton. At Karlberg, new students were known as ‘rukor’, similar in sense to the English rookie, designating a young and inexperienced new recruit, to the army or any other social institution, considered as an individual in need of schooling, or, as it were in effect, verbal and physical abuse.
- 62.
Lindgren gives the title in Swedish as ‘Ateismens nödvändighet’.
- 63.
Eliot’s title lacks clear capitalization in the Swedish original. In an unpublished letter to Wåhlin, 1892, Lindgren explained that he had in vain tried to account for his view on the marriage issue, but that it would be ‘too long’, adding that if Wåhlin ‘absolutely’ wanted to print also the last part of the sentence, ‘and this moral ought also be necessary to adopt for each and every one, who thinks etc.’, he could do so, yet ‘best would be to let it stand as it stands, and then give hell to the marriage moral’. Lindgren to Wåhlin, 1892 (my translation).
- 64.
The logic of this sentence is also awkward in Swedish: ‘Om man också ger honom skulden för at han bröt, har man därför icke rättighet att göra honom ansvarig för denna utgång’. Again, I have kept the translation very literal here for authenticity.
- 65.
Lindgren writes the Swedish word nervmänniskor, which the Swedish Academy’s Dictionary attributes as his coinage, meaning ‘person with sensitive nerves’.
- 66.
The title ‘Revolt of Islam’ is in English.
- 67.
Lindgren quotes this in English. The quote is a paraphrase derived from the first stanza of Byron’s poem ‘Fare Thee Well!’ (1816), the opening stanza which is really a quote from Coleridge’s poem ‘Christabel’, which ‘had circulated in manuscript long before it was published in 1816’ (Jackson 701):
Verse
Verse Alas! they had been friends in youth; But whispering tongues can poison truth; And constancy lives in realms above; And life is thorny; and youth is vain; And to be wroth with one we love, Doth work like madness in the brain. (408–13)
This poem was well known to Lindgren as Gustaf Fröding’stranslation of it, published in an earlier number of the first volume of Ord och bild, led him to ask Fröding for a translation of Shelley’s ‘Hymn to Intellectual Beauty’(1817). Lindgren thought that Fröding’stransla-tion of ‘Fare Thee Well!’ was ‘superb in some places but not all throughout successful’. Letter, Lindgren to Wåhlin, 1892.
- 68.
Lindgren writes ‘pleasureyacht’ in English, as a non-spaced compound.
- 69.
Lindgren quotes this line in a simplified Swedish translation, likely his own: ‘stiger sjungande och sjunger stigande’. I have translated Lindgren’s version into English here. In Shelley’s ‘To a Sky Lark’ (1820), the line reads, ‘And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest’ (10).
- 70.
Lindgren gives the English title.
- 71.
Lindgren writes the Swedish adjective ‘fri’ here, cognate with the English ‘free’. The significance of Shelley’s specific and poetical uses of the participle ‘unbound’ in Prometheus is misunderstood by nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Swedish critics and translators. The only published Swedish translation of Prometheus is not sensitive to Shelley’s use of this participle. Instead, Anders Österling in his 1942 translation gives the title Den Befriade Prometheus [The Liberated Prometheus]. For a discussion of Shelley’s use of negatives in Prometheus, see Timothy Webb’s ‘The Unascended Heaven: Negatives in “Prometheus Unbound”’ (1983).
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Conning, CL. (2022). ‘A poet, however, whom we fear that few Swedes know about’: Hellen Lindgren’s 1892 Essay on Percy Bysshe Shelley. In: Duffy, C., Rix, R.W. (eds) Nordic Romanticism. Palgrave Studies in the Enlightenment, Romanticism and Cultures of Print. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99127-2_10
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