Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Physical Properties of Small Particles

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Pigments, Extenders, and Particles in Surface Coatings and Plastics

  • 356 Accesses

Abstract

The particles encountered in plastics and paints display a wide range of physical and chemical characteristics. Many of these characteristics affect both the way that the particles process during plastic or paint manufacture as well as the impact they have on the end-use properties of the plastic or paint. In this chapter, we make a broad, high-level survey of the various analytical techniques used to characterize particles, including their appearance, size distribution, elemental composition, bulk properties, and surface properties, to make the reader aware of what analytical options are available and what these options can reveal.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    A mil is one-thousandth of an inch.

  2. 2.

    It is remarkable that we can visually distinguish particle size differences of 30 nm. By contrast, most people are unable to visually detect the size difference of a colored billiard ball (57 mm) and the white cue ball (63.5 mm)—a difference that is over two million times greater. One can even more easily detect different colloidal gold particle sizes of the similar magnitude as the difference in TiO2 particle size, since the wavelength of light most strongly scattered by a colloidal gold particle is quite sensitive to particle size. This remarkable achievement is possible because these particle sizes are matched to visible light, and because we are capable of discerning subtle changes in color (as discussed in Chapter 5, we can distinguish roughly 10 million colors).

  3. 3.

    For simplicity we will refer in this section to the adsorbing species as molecules, but atomic gases, such as helium, argon or krypton, absorb onto surfaces in the same way.

  4. 4.

    The exceptions are resin particles in paints, which are organic and so are low surface energy materials.

  5. 5.

    Following the practice of the last section, we will refer here to the interacting species as molecules, but such species can be atoms as well.

  6. 6.

    The surface energy of a liquid is sometimes referred to as its surface tension.

  7. 7.

    This should not be confused with the surface coverage in Eq. 2. Equation 2, on the one hand, and Eqs. 8, 9, and 11, on the other, use the symbol θ in a very different way.

  8. 8.

    Properly speaking, we must specify the materials on both sides of a surface when discussing surface area. In situations of interest to us, the surface interface with a liquid or solid is air (or gas), and the subscripts for the symbols for liquid and solid surface energies will include the letter “g”—e.g., γlg and γsg.

  9. 9.

    This should not be confused with the constant c in the gas adsorption equations.

  10. 10.

    We might expect that all water would evolve at 100 °C—the boiling point of liquid water. While the end product is the same in all cases (gaseous water molecules), the starting point is different. The vaporization process—and the temperature at which it occurs—is dependent on how strongly a molecule is attached to its neighboring molecules. When the neighboring molecules are like molecules, as they are in liquid water, this process occurs at 100 °C. In other materials, the atomic environment surrounding the water molecules is different, and so, too, is the water evolution temperature.

  11. 11.

    Light does not merely reflect from particles that are of similar size to the wavelength of light, but instead scatters from them (see Chapter 3).

  12. 12.

    The ability of a magnetic lens to spread out an electron beam is far greater than the ability of a glass lens to spread out a light beam.

  13. 13.

    There are still positively and negatively charged sites on the surface at the IEP, but these charges balance to give a net charge of zero. This situation is equivalent to the concept of zwitterions for discrete molecules.

  14. 14.

    Pigmentary TiO2 particles made by the chloride process invariably have some alumina on their surfaces, which shifts the IEP to a higher value than for pure rutile (IEP = 5.2).

References

  1. Heintzenberg, J.: Properties of the log-normal particle size distribution. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 21(1), 46 (1994)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Zender, C.S.: Particle Size Distributions: Theory and Application to Aerosols, Clouds, and Soils. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2393276_Particle_Size_Distributions_Theory_and_Application_to_Aerosols_Clouds_and_Soils

  3. Kolmogorov, A.N.: On the logarithmically normal distribution law of particle sizes at the subdivision. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 31(2), 99 (1941)

    Google Scholar 

  4. Söderlund, J., Kiss, L.B., Niklasson, G.A., Granquvist, C.G.: Log-normal size distribution in particle growth processes without coagulation. Phys. Rev. Let. 80(11), 2386 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Wang, D., Fan, L.-S.: Particle characterization and behavior relevant to fluidized bed combustion and gasification systems. In: Scala, F. (Ed.) Fluidized Bed Technologies for Near-Zero Emission Combustion and Gasification. Woodhead (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  6. Ruzer, L.S., Harley, N.H. (Eds.): Aerosols Handbook: Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects, 2nd Edn. CRC Press (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  7. Merkus, H.G.: Particle Size Measurements: Fundamentals, Practice, Quality. Springer (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  8. Allen, T.: Particle Size Measurement. Springer (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  9. Patterson, A.: The Scherrer formula for X-ray particle size determination. Phys. Rev. 56(10), 978 (1939)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Stetefeld, J., McKenna, S.A., Patel, T.R.: Dynamic light scattering: a practical guide and applications in biomedical sciences. Biophys. Rev. 8, 409 (2016)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Anon.: Acoustic spectroscopy for particle size measurement. Pig. Res. Technol. 29(5) (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  12. Measurement and Characterization of Particles by Acoustic Methods – Part 1: Concepts and Procedures in Ultrasonic Attenuation Spectroscopy. ISO 20998-1 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  13. Dunkin, A.S.: Characterization of Nanoparticles: Measurement Processes for Nanoparticles. In: Hodoroaba, V.-D., Unger, W.E.S., Shard, A.G. (Eds.). Elsevier (2020)

    Google Scholar 

  14. Fichera, O., Alpan, L., Laloy, J., et al.: Characterization of water-based paints containing titanium dioxide or carbon black as manufactured nanomaterials before and after atomization. Appl Nanosci. 9, 515 (2019)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Giddings, J.C., Yang, F.J.F., Myers, M.N.: Sedimentation field-flow fractionation. Anal. Chem. 46(13), 1917 (1974)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Allen, T.: Particle Size Analysis. In: Stanley-Wood, N.G., Lines, R.W. (Eds.). Royal Society of Chemistry (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  17. Standard Guide for Defect Detection and Rating of Plastic Films Using Optical Sensors. ASTM D7310

    Google Scholar 

  18. Pigments and Extenders—Methods of Dispersion and Assessment of Dispersibility in Plastics—Part 5: Determination by Filter Pressure Value Test. ISO 23900-5 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  19. Thommes, M., et al.: Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution. Pure Appl. Chem. 87(9–10), 1051 (2015)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Brunauer, S., Emmett, P.H., Teller, E.: Adsorption of gases in multimolecular layers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 60(2), 309 (1938)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Rouquerol, J., Llewellyn, P., Rouquerol, F.: Is the BET equation applicable to microporous adsorbents? Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal. 160(7), 49 (2007)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Rouquerol, J., Avnir, D., Fairbridge, C.W., Everett, D.H., Haynes, J.M., Pernicone, N., Ramsay, J.D.F., Sing, K.S.W., Unger, K.K.: Recommendations for the characterization of porous solids (technical report). Pure Appl. Chem. 66(8), 1739 (1994)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Leofanti, G., Padovan, M., Tozzola, G., Venturelli, B.: Surface area and pore texture of catalysts. Catal. Today 41(1), 207 (1998)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Thommes, M., Kaneko, K., Neimar, A.V., Olivier, J.P., Rodriguez-Reinoso, F., Rouquerol, J., Sing, K.S.W.: Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem. 87(9–10), 1051 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  25. Washburn, E.W.: Note on a method of determining the distribution of pore sizes in a porous material. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 7(4), 115 (1921)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Barrett, E.P., Joyner, L.G., Halenda, P.R.: The determination of pore volume and area distributions in porous substances. I. Computations from nitrogen isotherms. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 73(1), 373 (1951)

    Google Scholar 

  27. Seaton, N.A., Walton, J., Quirke, N.: A new analysis method for the determination of the pore-size distribution of porous carbons from nitrogen adsorption measurements. Carbon 27, 853 (1989)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Landers, J., Yu, G., Neimark, A.V.: Density functional theory methods for characterization of porous materials. Colloids Surf. A 437, 3 (2013)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Ravikovitcha, P.I., P. I., Haller, G. L., Neimarka, A. V.,: Density functional theory model for calculating pore size distributions: pore structure of nanoporous catalysts. Adv. Coll. Inter. Sci. 76–77, 203 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Alghunaim, A., Kirdponpattara, S., Newby, B.-M.Z.: Techniques for determining contact angle and wettability of powders. Powd. Technol. 287, 201 (2016)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Kirdponpattara, S., Phisalaphong, M., Min, B., Newby, B.-M.Z.: Application of washburn capillary rise for determining contact angles of powders/porous materials. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 397, 169 (2013)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Castellanos, A.: The relationship between attractive interparticle forces and bulk behavior in dry and uncharged fine powders. Adv. Phys. 54(4), 263 (2005)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Hassanpour, A., Hare, C., Pasha, M. (Eds.): Powder Flow: Theory, Characterisation and Application. Royal Society of Chemistry (2019)

    Google Scholar 

  34. Prescott, J.K., Barnum, R.S.: On powder flowability. Pharma. Technol. 24(10), 60 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  35. Standard Test Method for Oil Absorption of Pigments by Spatula Rub-out. ASTM D281-12(2021)

    Google Scholar 

  36. General Methods of Test for Pigments and Extenders—Part 5: Determination of Oil Absorption Value. ISO 787 Part 5 (1980)

    Google Scholar 

  37. Höhne, G.W.H., Hemminger, W.F., Flammersheim, H.J.: Differential Scanning Calorimetry. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2003)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  38. Measurement and Interpretation of Electrokinetic Phenomena. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Technical Report. Pure Appl. Chem. 77(10), 1753 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  39. Diebold, M.P., Bettler, C.R., Mukoda, D.M.: Mechanism of TiO2/ZnO instability. J. Coatings Tech. 75(942), 29 (2003)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Schofield, R.K., Samson, H.R.: Flocculation of kaolinite due to the attraction of oppositely charged crystal faces. Disc. Faraday Soc. 18, 135 (1954)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Delgado, A.V., González-Caballero, F., Hunter, R.J., Koopal, L.K., Lyklema, J.: Measurement and interpretation of electrokinetic phenomena (IUPAC technical report). Pure Appl. Chem. 77(10), 1753 (2005)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Smoluchowski, M.: Contribution to the theory of electro-osmosis and related phenomena. Bull. Int. Acad. Sci. Cracovie 3, 184 (1903)

    Google Scholar 

  43. General Methods of Test for Pigments and Extenders—Part 9: Determination of pH Value of an Aqueous Suspension. ISO 787 Part 9 (2019)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Titanium Technologies, Chemours, Wilmington, DE, USA

    Michael Diebold

  2. Titanium Technologies, Chemours Belgium BVBA, Kallo, Belgium

    Steven De Backer

  3. The Chemours Discovery Hub, Newark, The Chemours Company, Newark, DE, USA

    Philipp M. Niedenzu

  4. The Chemours Discovery Hub, The Chemours Company, Newark, DE, USA

    Brett R. Hester

  5. Titanium Technologies, Chemours Belgium BVBA, Kallo, Belgium

    Frank A. C. Vanhecke

Authors
  1. Michael Diebold
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Steven De Backer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Philipp M. Niedenzu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Brett R. Hester
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Frank A. C. Vanhecke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Diebold, M., Backer, S.D., Niedenzu, P.M., Hester, B.R., Vanhecke, F.A.C. (2022). The Physical Properties of Small Particles. In: Pigments, Extenders, and Particles in Surface Coatings and Plastics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99083-1_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation