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Conscientious Objection

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 98))

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Abstract

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the historical background, leading into the current social context and a consideration of the social movements and issues that generate dissent and shape the context for conscientious objection. It then identifies and examines the relevant principles, doctrines and definitions including ‘religion’, contemporary forms of ‘belief’ and matters of conscience. Moving on to consider the principle of conscientious objection and the related exemptions, it tracks the evolving policy as applied consecutively to oaths, military service, abortion and other health issues, same sex relationships, euthanasia etc. It then states the relavant legal framework, domestic and international legislation and the court system.

The core of the chapter begins with an appraisal of the relationship between fundamental human rights and conscience before launching into a systematic study of the issues lying at the heart of the conscientious objection/equality law intersect. This it does by considering illustrative caselaw in relation to: public health matters; social care services; national defence; public education; employment; and commercial services.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See, further, at: https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/national-population-estimates-at-31-march-2020-infoshare-tables.

  2. 2.

    In the 2018 census, 20,409 people listed their religion as followers of the Jedi.

  3. 3.

    Human Rights Commission, Statement on Religious Diversity, 2007, at: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/document/28196/statement-on-religious-diversity.

  4. 4.

    [1985] 1 NZLR 673.

  5. 5.

    (1983) 154 CLR 120.

  6. 6.

    Ibid, at p. 136.

  7. 7.

    [1959] NZLR 1236 at p. 1241.

  8. 8.

    HC WN CIV 2010-485-000831 [2 June 2011].

  9. 9.

    Ibid, at para. 125.

  10. 10.

    [2013] NZHRRT 36.

  11. 11.

    Ibid at paras. 33 and 42.

  12. 12.

    (1983) 154 CLR 120, at p. 139.

  13. 13.

    [1985] 1 NZLR 673.

  14. 14.

    Ibid. Citing as a guiding precedent, the earlier ruling in Church of the New Faith in the High Court of Australia.

  15. 15.

    A91/98 (29 July 1998).

  16. 16.

    Ngāti Apa v. Attorney-General [2003] 3 NZLR 643.

  17. 17.

    See, Huakina Development Trust v. Waikato Valley Authority [1987] 2 NZLR 188 (HC) and New Zealand Māori Council v. Attorney-General [1987] 1NZLR 641 (CA).

  18. 18.

    See, for example, Otararua Hapu v. Taranaki Regional Council (A124/98) and Bleakley v. Environmental Risk Management Authority [2001] 3 NZLR 213.

  19. 19.

    See, Ahdar and John Stenhouse (2000).

  20. 20.

    [1910] 30 NZLR 244 at p. 253.

  21. 21.

    [1917] NZLR 308.

  22. 22.

    [1998] 3 NZLR 513 at p. 523.

  23. 23.

    [1917] NZLR 308.

  24. 24.

    [1996] 1 NZLR 556 (HC).

  25. 25.

    See, further, Adhar, R.T., ‘The Religious Demography of New Zealand’, p. 547 at: https://www.iclrs.org/content/blurb/files/New%20Zealand.pdf.

  26. 26.

    Author acknowledges advice from Dean Knight on this matter (note to author, 19.10.21).

  27. 27.

    [1979] 2 NZLR 531 at pp. 542–543.

  28. 28.

    7 Edw. VII No. 13. The Act was not repealed until 1962.

  29. 29.

    [2013] NZHRRT 36.

  30. 30.

    Ibid, at paras 31 and 9.

  31. 31.

    See, further, at: https://menwhosaidno.org/context/baxter.html.

  32. 32.

    See, further, at: https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/history/conscientious-objectors.

  33. 33.

    See, further, Khouri, P.M., ‘Conscientious Objection and Compulsory Military Service in New Zealand’, Auckland University Law Review, at: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AukULawRw/1971/6.pdf.

  34. 34.

    See, the Committee’s expressed concern about New Zealand’s “convoluted abortion laws which require women to get certificates from two certified consultants before an abortion can be performed, thus making women dependent on the benevolent interpretation of a rule which nullifies their autonomy” (July 2012).

  35. 35.

    [2016] NZHRRT 9.

  36. 36.

    [2015] NZFC 9404.

  37. 37.

    See, for example: VP v. PM (1998) 16 FRNZ 61 (lesbian mother retains custody of two children); Re An Application by T [1998] NZFLR 769 (second parent adoption by lesbian mother of partner’s child by donor insemination refused); A v. R [1999] NZFLR 249 (non-biological mother in Re An Application by T, ibid, held liable for child support payments as a step-parent); and Re application of AMM and KJO to adopt a child [2010] NZFLR 629 (‘spouse’ includes de facto heterosexual couples).

  38. 38.

    Quilter v. Attorney-General [1998] 1 NZLR 523 1.

  39. 39.

    Joslin et al v. New Zealand, Communication No. 902/1999, (2002).

  40. 40.

    Note also, the Human Rights Commission, To Be Who I Am: Report of the Inquiry into Discrimination Experienced by Transgender People, January 2008.

  41. 41.

    [1991] NZFLR 337 (FC).

  42. 42.

    See, further, MacKenzie (1992), pp. 557–558.

  43. 43.

    [1995] 1 NZLR 603.

  44. 44.

    [2001] 3 NZLR 213.

  45. 45.

    See, for example, Ryan v. Attorney General (1965) IR 294 when the Irish Supreme Court determined in favour of introducing fluoride into the nation’s drinking water, for reasons of dental health, despite the plaintiff’s conscientious objection.

  46. 46.

    See, further, Anglican Taonga: New Zealand’s Anglican News Leader, at: Anglicantaonga.org.nz.

  47. 47.

    See, further, at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-53861456.

  48. 48.

    See, McLean et al. (2021), pp. S197–S213.

  49. 49.

    International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights.

  50. 50.

    On 13th September 2007, the General Assembly adopted this landmark declaration outlining the rights of the world’s estimated 370 million indigenous people and outlawing discrimination against them: 143 Member States voted in favour; 11 abstained and four—Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States—voted against.

  51. 51.

    See, further, at: http://www.justice.govt.nz/policy/constitutional-law-and-human-rights/consideration-of-constitutional-issues-1/members-of-the-constitutional-advisory-panel.

  52. 52.

    See, further, Ekins and Tomkins (2013).

  53. 53.

    New Zealand Māori Council v. Attorney-General, op cit, per Cooke P.

  54. 54.

    For judicial interpretation of what is meant by “reasonable limits” see Hansen v. R [2OO7] 3 NZLR 1 (SC).

  55. 55.

    Mendelssohn v. Attorney-General (1999) 2 NZLR 268 (CA) at p. 273.

  56. 56.

    The Supreme Court Act 2003, s.13.

  57. 57.

    See, for example, Director of Human Rights Proceedings v. Slater [2019] NZHRRT 13.

  58. 58.

    Author acknowledges advice from Steven Price on this matter (note to author: 14.10.21).

  59. 59.

    New Zealand Beef and Lamb Marketing Bureau 03/20 (ASCB, 11 March 2003); Appeal 03/10 (ASCAB, 28 October 2003).

  60. 60.

    (2008) 27 FRNZ 58. This case concerned Michael, a person born female who self-identified as male from an early age, dressed in male clothing from the age of 9 and had been sexually attracted to females since puberty. The court concluded that Michael could be given a new birth certificate reflecting his male gender.

  61. 61.

    [1996] 1 NZLR 556 (HC).

  62. 62.

    Repealed by s.5 of the Crimes Amendment Act 2019.

  63. 63.

    See the summaries in Human Rights Commission (2010), p. 75. Accessible online at http://www.hrc.co.nz/hrc_new/hrc/cms/files/documents/08-Mar-2010_14-17-15_HRC_RR_Report_2009web.pdf.

  64. 64.

    EmpC 60, 2015.

  65. 65.

    See, further, at: https://theconversation.com/workplace-whistleblowers-deserve-more-protection-than-nzs-new-law-will-deliver-158207.

  66. 66.

    See, further, at: https://dpmc.govt.nz/our-programmes/national-security-and-intelligence/intelligence-and-security-act-2017/whistleblowing-and-protecting-classified-information.

  67. 67.

    [2019] NZDC 3860.

  68. 68.

    Note, also, Beggs v. Attorney-General [2002] NZCA 204 and Morse v. The Police [2010] NZSC 45 both attracting a similar judicial response.

  69. 69.

    [2020] NZHC 1356, per Mallon J at para 103.

  70. 70.

    Feau v. Department of Social Welfare (1995) 2 HRNZ 528.

  71. 71.

    Noort v. MOT [1992] 3 NZLR 260 at p. 283.

  72. 72.

    The Report of the Standing Orders Committee ‘Petition of Dr Anthony Hochberg and 9 others’ (relating to the parliamentary prayer) (15 June 2007) might be viewed as representing the collective conscientious objections of a majority of MPs to any alteration or removal of the overtly Christian prayer that opens parliamentary sessions.

  73. 73.

    [2005] DCR 408 (DC).

  74. 74.

    Friends and Community of Ngawha Inc v. Minister of Corrections [2002] NRMA 401.

  75. 75.

    Bleakley v. Environmental Risk Management Authority [2001] 3 NZLR 213.

  76. 76.

    Op cit at n.28.

  77. 77.

    A117/2006 [2006] NZEnvC 290.

  78. 78.

    Ibid at p. 439.

  79. 79.

    See, Amaltal Fishing Co Ltd.v. Nelson Polytechnic (No.2) (1996) 2 HRNZ 225 and Avis Rent A Car Ltd v. Proceedings Commissioner (1998) 5 HRNZ 501.

  80. 80.

    Citizenship Act 1977; Immigration Act 1987; State Sector Act 1988; Ethnic Perspectives in Policy 2003.

  81. 81.

    Quilter v. Attorney-General, op cit.

  82. 82.

    Public Service Commission, ‘Understanding the code of conduct - Guidance for State servants’ at: https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/resources/code-guidance-stateservants/?e198=1406-impartial.

  83. 83.

    Alexander v. Police. (1998) 4 HRNZ 632 (CA).

  84. 84.

    See, further, at: https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/regulation-health-and-disability-system/abortion-legislation-information-health-practitioners.

  85. 85.

    See, for example, Halligan and Anor v. Medical Council of NZ, HC WN CIV-2010-485-222 (2010).

  86. 86.

    See, the Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion Act 1977 and the Crimes Act 1961.

  87. 87.

    HC WN CIV-2010-485-222 [2 December 2010].

  88. 88.

    [2012] NZSC 68.

  89. 89.

    [2021] NZHC 2510.

  90. 90.

    See, Howie, C., ‘Women have Reproductive Duty, says ‘Rhythm Doctor’, The New Zealand Herald (14 July 2013).

  91. 91.

    See, in VP v. PM (1998) 16 FRNZ 61 where a lesbian mother retained custody of her two children.

  92. 92.

    See, further, Clifford (2016).

  93. 93.

    United Nations; Committee on the Rights of Child, The fifth periodic report of New Zealand, (2016) at p. 15. See further, at: http://intersex.shadowreport.org/public/2016-CRC-NZ-NGO-Zwischengeschlecht-Intersex-IGM.pdf.

  94. 94.

    [1996] 2 NZLR 134.

  95. 95.

    Ibid at p. 146.

  96. 96.

    Auckland Healthcare Services Ltd v. Liu, High Court, Auckland, 11.7.1996, M812/96 and Auckland Healthcare Services Ltd v.T [1996] NZFLR 670.

  97. 97.

    See, for example, Seales v. Attorney-General [2015] 3 NZLR 556.

  98. 98.

    [2020] NZHC 1356, per Mallon J at paras 103–117 and 214.

  99. 99.

    [2020] NZHC 2090.

  100. 100.

    See, also, the Epidemic Preparedness Act 2006.

  101. 101.

    R v. Hansen [2007] NZSC 7.

  102. 102.

    See Human Rights Commission, ‘Human rights and te Tiriti o Waitangi: COVID-19 and alert level 4 in Aotearoa New Zealand’, (2020).

  103. 103.

    See, further, at: https://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/public/2021/0094/latest/LMS487853.html.

  104. 104.

    [2021] NZHC 2526. Author thanks Dean Knight for drawing this case to his attention (note to author, 19.10.21).

  105. 105.

    [2010] NZFLR 629.

  106. 106.

    New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990, s.19, with the anti-discrimination grounds appearing in Human Rights Act 1993, s.21.

  107. 107.

    [2015] NZFC 9404, [2016] NZFLR 53. See, also, Adoption Action Incorporated v. Attorney-General [2016] NZHRRT 9.

  108. 108.

    [2019] NZSSAA 13.

  109. 109.

    Communication No 902/1999, (2002).

  110. 110.

    Dudgeon v. United Kingdom Application No. 7525/76, (1981).

  111. 111.

    See, New Zealand Ministry of Education, ‘Roll by Education Regional & Authority’, 2015.

  112. 112.

    See, IHC New Zealand v. Attorney-General (Strike-Out Application) [2020] NZHRRT 47.

  113. 113.

    See, for example, Humpage (2009), pp. 73–82.

  114. 114.

    See, further, at: http://www.neon.org.nz/trackingequalityatwork/sexualorientation/.

  115. 115.

    See, further, at: : https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion-post/news/wellington/77457959/wellington-high-onslow-college-get-genderneutral-bathrooms.

  116. 116.

    See, Morris, P., ‘Review of Christian Education Commission teaching materials’, 2015, at: http://religiouseducation.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/PAUL-MORRIS-REVIEWS-2-CEC-SYLLABUSES.pdf.

  117. 117.

    See, New Zealand Ministry of Education, ‘Sexuality education in The New Zealand Curriculum’ at: http://health.tki.org.nz/Teaching-in-HPE/Policy-guidelines/Sexuality-education-a-guide-for-principals-boards-of-trustees-and-teachers/Sexuality-education-in-The-New-Zealand-Curriculum.

  118. 118.

    R v. Jack [1999] 1 NZCMAR 324.

  119. 119.

    See, further, at: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/286022/alleged-prison-assault-victim-trans-woman.

  120. 120.

    (2004) 7 HRNZ 379 (HC).

  121. 121.

    Refugee Appeal No. 1312/93, (1995).

  122. 122.

    Ibid, citing Refugee Appeal No. 3/91 Re ZWD (20 October 1992) paras. 70–73.

  123. 123.

    Ibid, paras. 59–85.

  124. 124.

    Note that the ICCPR, Articles 2, 17, and 26 entitle an asylum appellant not to have to suppress their sexuality in order to avoid persecution.

  125. 125.

    [2013] NZIPT 800322.

  126. 126.

    [2014] NZIPT 800656.

  127. 127.

    [2015] NZIPT 501973.

  128. 128.

    [2016] NZHC 1490, [2016] 3 NZLR 425.

  129. 129.

    Liberty Trust v. Charities Commission, [2011] NZHC 577.

  130. 130.

    [2013] NZHRRT 36. See, further, at: http://www.justice.govt.nz/tribunals/human-rights-review-tribunal.

  131. 131.

    [2014] NZHRRT 9.

  132. 132.

    [2014] NZHRRT 51.

  133. 133.

    [2015] NZHRRT 8.

  134. 134.

    Human Rights Act 1993, s.92F(2). See, Claymore Management Ltd v. Anderson [2003] 2 NZLR 537.

  135. 135.

    Human Rights Act 1993, s.65.

  136. 136.

    Claymore Management Ltd v. Anderson, op cit.

  137. 137.

    See further at: https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10531484.

  138. 138.

    [2016] NZERA Auckland.

  139. 139.

    This requires an evaluative analysis of the reasonableness or proportionality of the employer’s response: Smith v. Air New Zealand Ltd [2011] 2 NZLR 171, at para. 161.

  140. 140.

    Ibid at para. 157.

  141. 141.

    [2016] NZERA Auckland.

  142. 142.

    See, further, at: https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/no-scarf-job-seeker-told-but-jeweller-says-it-was-an-error/NBDG7AR76KP3CHWM4DWE64QDSU/.

  143. 143.

    Department of Labour v. Books and Toys (Wanaka) Ltd [2005] 7 HRNZ 931.

  144. 144.

    See, further, at: https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/105353363/can-a-businesses-reject-customers-based-on-religious-beliefs.

  145. 145.

    Lee v. and Ashers Baking Co Ltd and others, [2018] UKSC 49.

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    Kerry O’Halloran

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O’Halloran, K. (2022). New Zealand. In: Conscientious Objection. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 98. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97648-4_9

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