Abstract
Gender inequality has been one of the most indisputable facts of our society for years and it remains a major issue even today. There is inequality in social, economic and political realms and all three of them are interconnected. But it is still hard to find the root causes of the persistent gender-inequality in the society. Gender inequality in the corporate sector does not come as a surprise. It remains a major issue in boardrooms across the world with only 19 per cent of women occupying the boardroom seats in 2022. To the surprise of many, some of the world’s most advanced economies such as Japan have only 9 per cent women in the boardrooms. Against this background, the present study provides a comprehensive review of the literature on gendered nature of organizations. It identifies that the literature is predominantly etic in nature. Also, despite several decades of research on gender diversity, there is no systemic feminist theory around women and organizations. The present chapter will also try to understand the key concepts in order to understand the nature of gendered organization.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and men- such as norms, roles and relationships of and between groups of women and men. It varies from society to society and can be changed. While most people are born either male or female, they are taught appropriate norms and behaviours – including how they should interact with others of the same or opposite sex within households, communities and workplaces. When individuals or groups do not “fit” established gender norms they often face stigma, discriminatory practices or social exclusion – all of which adversely affect health. It is important to be sensitive to different identities that do not necessarily fit into binary male or female sex categories.
URL: http://www.who.int/gender-equity-rights/understanding/gender-definition/en/
- 2.
Judith Butler as of 2020 said they prefer to use “they” pronouns.
References
Acker, J. (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender & Society, 4(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124390004002002
Acker, J. (2009). From Glass Ceiling to Inequality Regimes. Sociologie du Travail, 51(2), 199–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soctra.2009.03.004
Acker, J. (2012). Gendered organizations and intersectionality: problems and possibilities. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 31(3), 214–224. https://doi.org/10.1108/02610151211209072
Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (1993). Women in management: Organizational socialization and assessment practices that prevent career advancement. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 1(2), 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.1993.tb00091.x
Alter, C. (2015, September 26). Here’s what Anne-Marie slaughter has to say about Sheryl Sandberg. Time. Retrieved from https://time.com/4050404/anne-marie-slaughter-unfinished-business-sheryl-sandberg/
Arken, D. E., Bellar, S. L., & Helms, M. M. (2004). The ultimate glass ceiling revisited: The presence of women on corporate boards. Journal of Business Ethics, 50(2), 177–185.
Arneil, B. (1999). Politics & Feminism P: An introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
Baca Zinn, M., & Wells, B. (2000). Diversity within Latino families: New lessons for family social science. In D. H. Demo, K. R. Allen, & M. A. Fine (Eds.), The handbook of family diversity (pp. 252–273). Oxford University Press.
Baxter, J., & Wright, E. O. (2000). The glass ceiling hypothesis: A comparative study of the United States, Sweden, and Australia. Gender & Society, 14(2), 275–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124300014002004
Blumberg, R. (1984). A general theory of gender stratification. Sociological Theory, 2, 23–101. https://doi.org/10.2307/223343
Brenner, M. (1998). Gender and classroom interactions in Liberia. In K. M. Bloch et al. (Eds.), Women and education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Rienner/Boulder.
Britton, D. M. (2000). The epistemology of the gendered organization. Gender & Society, 14(3), 418–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124300014003004
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. Routledge.
Charles, M., & Grusky, D. B. (2004). Occupational ghettos: The worldwide segregation of women and men. Stanford University Press.
Connell, R. (2006). Glass ceilings or gendered institutions? Mapping the gender regimes of public sector worksites. Public Administration Review, 66(6), 837–849. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00652.x
Davidson, M. J., & Cooper, C. L. (1992). Shattering the glass ceiling: The woman manager. Paul Chapman Publishing.
Devine, F. (1992). Social identities, class identity and political perspectives. The Sociological Review, 40(2), 229–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.1992.tb00888.x
Dzuback, M. (2003). Gender and the politics of knowledge. History of Education Quarterly, 43(2), 171–195.
Elliott, J. R., & Smith, R. A. (2004). Race, gender, and workplace power. American Sociological Review, 69(3), 365–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240406900303
Elorriaga, A. (2011). The construction of male gender identity through choir singing at a Spanish secondary school. International Journal of Music Education, 29(4), 318–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761411421091
Ely, R. J., Ibarra, H., & Kolb, D. (2011). Taking gender into account: Theory and design for women’s leadership development programs. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(3), 474–493.
Gorman, E. H., & Kmec, J. A. (2009). Hierarchical rank and women’s organizational mobility: glass ceilings in corporate law firms. American Journal of Sociology, 114(5), 1428–1474. https://doi.org/10.1086/595950
Gray, J. (1992). Men are from Mars, women are from Venus: A practical guide for improving communication and getting what you want in your relationships. HarperCollins.
Greene, A. M., & Kirton, G. (2009). Diversity management in the UK: Organizational and stakeholder experiences. Routledge.
Harding, S. (1992). Rethinking standpoint epistemology: What is “strong objectivity?”. The Centennial Review, 36(3), 437–470.
Hite, L. M., & McDonald, K. S. (2010). Perspectives on HRD and diversity education. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(3), 283–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422310374974
Holvino, E., & Kamp, A. (2009). Diversity management: Are we moving in the right direction? Reflections from both sides of the North Atlantic. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 25(4), 395–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scaman.2009.09.005
Huse, M., & Grethe, S. A. (2006). Gender related boardroom dynamics: How women make and can make contributions on corporate boards. Women in Management Review, 21(2), 113–130. https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420610650693
Ibarra, H. (1992). Homophily and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37(3), 422–447. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393451
Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. Basic Books.
Kimmel, M. S. (2004). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame, and silence in the construction of gender identity. In P. D. Rothenberg (Ed.), Race, class, and gender in the United States: An integrated study (pp. 81–93). Worth.
Konrad, A. M., Prasad, P., & Pringle, J. (2006). Handbook of workplace diversity. SAGE Publication.
Lorber, J. (2000). Using gender to undo gender: A feminist degendering movement. Feminist Theory, 1(1), 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/14647000022229074
Lyness, K. S., & Heilman, M. E. (2006). When fit is fundamental: performance evaluations and promotions of upper-level female and male managers. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(4), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.777
MacManus, S. (1979). Political Science Quarterly, 94(4), 696–698. https://doi.org/10.2307/2149645
Meriläinen, S., Tienari, J., Thomas, R., & Davies, A. (2004). Management consultant talk: A cross-cultural comparison of normalizing discourse and resistance. Organization, 11(4), 539–564. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508404044061
Milliken, F., & Martins, L. (1996). Searching for common threads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. The Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 402–433. https://doi.org/10.2307/258667
Oakley, J. G. (2000). Gender-based barriers to senior management positions: Understanding the scarcity of female CEOs. Journal of Business Ethics, 27, 321–334. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006226129868
Parsons, T., & Platt, G. M. (1973). The American University. Harvard University Press.
Pateman, C. (1970). Participation and democratic theory. Cambridge University Press.
Pateman, C. (1988). The sexual contract. Polity Press/Stanford University Press.
Rao, A., & Kelleher, D. (2000). Leadership for social transformation: Some ideas and questions on institutions and feminist leadership. Gender and Development, 8(3), 74–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/741923786
Rao, A., & Kelleher, D. (2003). Institutions, organizations and gender equality in an era of globalisation. Gender and Development, 11(1), 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/741954264
Rhode, D. L. (1988). Occupational inequality. 1988 Duke Law Journal, 1207–1241. Retrieved from https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/dlj/vol37/iss6/3
Roos, P. A., & McDaniel, P. A. (1996). Are occupations gendered?: Evidence from census microdata, 1970 to 1990. Paper presented at Annual Meetings, American Sociological Association, August, New York.
Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean in: Women, work, and the will to lead. Alfred A. Knopf.
Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Singh, V., Terjesen, S., & Vinnicombe, S. (2008). Newly appointed directors in the boardroom: How do women and men differ. European Management Journal, 26(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2007.10.002
Skaggs, S., Stainback, K., & Duncan, P. (2012). Shaking things up or business as usual? The influence of female corporate executives and board of directors on women’s managerial representation. Social Science Research, 41(4), 936–948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.01.006
Squires, J. (2005). Is mainstreaming transformative? Theorizing mainstreaming in the context of diversity and deliberation. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 12(3), 366–388. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxi020
Turner, B. S. (1986). Equality. Ellis Horwood.
Verloo, M. (2016). Mainstreaming gender equality in Europe: A critical frame analysis. The Greek Review of Social Research, 117, 11–34. https://doi.org/10.12681/grsr.9555
Wahl, A., & Holgersson, C. (2003). Male managers’ reactions to gender diversity activities in organizations. In P. Herriot, M. J. Davidson, & S. L. Fielden (Eds.), Individual diversity and psychology in organizations (pp. 313–329). Wiley-Blackwell.
Walt, N., & Ingley, C. (2003). Board dynamics and the influence of professional background, gender and ethnic diversity of directors. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 11(3), 218–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8683.00320
Williams, C. L. (2002). Sexuality and gender. Wiley-Blackwell.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Vartika (2022). Understanding Gender and Organizations: A Literature Review. In: Marques, J., Dhiman, S. (eds) Leading With Diversity, Equity and Inclusion. Future of Business and Finance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95652-3_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95652-3_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-95651-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-95652-3
eBook Packages: Business and ManagementBusiness and Management (R0)