Abstract
This chapter examines waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies as a solution, not only to dispose of the wastes but also to generate energy as well as other useful products from the wastes. The three main WtE processes (incineration, gasification, and pyrolysis) are reviewed in this chapter along with design conditions, different reactor configurations used, and air pollution control (APC) issues in WtE plants. Since the world is facing an unprecedented growth of waste generation and shortages of landfill facilities, WtE technology can play a significant role in addressing the serious threat posed on the environment while efficiently utilizing wastes into energy.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
H. Abduhani, Y. Tursun, A. Abulizi, D. Talifu, X. Huang, Characteristics and kinetics of the gas releasing during oil shale pyrolysis in a micro fluidized bed reactor. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 157, 105187 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105187
H. Al-Haj Ibrahim, Introductory chapter: Pyrolysis, in Recent Advances in Pyrolysis, (IntechOpen, Rijeka, 2020). https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90366
S. Al-Salem, Energy production from plastic solid waste (PSW). Plast. Energy 2019, 45–64 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-813140-4.00003-0
G. Andrews, Ultra-low nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions combustion in gas turbine systems. Modern Gas Turbine Syst. 2013, 715–716 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857096067.3.715
S. Arvelakis, H. Gehrmann, M. Beckmann, E. Koukios, Effect of leaching on the ash behavior of olive residue during fluidized bed gasification. Biomass Bioenergy 22(1), 55–69 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0961-9534(01)00059-9
M. Asadullah, M. Rahman, M. Ali, M. Rahman, M. Motin, M. Sultan, M. Alam, Production of bio-oil from fixed bed pyrolysis of bagasse. Fuel 86(16), 2514–2520 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2007.02.007
A. Ayanoğlu, R. Yumrutaş, Rotary kiln and batch pyrolysis of waste tire to produce gasoline and diesel like fuels. Energ. Conver. Manage. 111, 261–270 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.12.070
M. Babler, A. Phounglamcheik, M. Amovic, R. Ljunggren, K. Engvall, Modeling and pilot plant runs of slow biomass pyrolysis in a rotary kiln. Appl. Energy 207, 123–133 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.06.034
A. Badgett, A. Milbrandt, A summary of standards and practices for wet waste streams used in waste-to-energy technologies in the United States. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 117, 109425 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109425
P. Basu, Biomass Gasification, Pyrolysis and Torrefaction, 3rd edn. (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2018)
J. Bermudez, B. Fidalgo, Production of bio-syngas and bio-hydrogen via gasification. Biofuels Prod. 2016, 431–494 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-100455-5.00015-1
H. Beyene, A. Werkneh, T. Ambaye, Current updates on waste to energy (WtE) technologies: A review. Renew. Energy Focus 24, 1–11 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ref.2017.11.001
M. Blijderveen, Ignition and Combustion Phenomena on a Moving Grate (Uitgeverij BOXPress, Oisterwijk, 2011), pp. 19–25
D. Chen, L. Yin, H. Wang, P. He, Reprint of: Pyrolysis technologies for municipal solid waste: A review. Waste Manage. 37, 116–136 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.01.022
H. Chen, B. Dou, Y. Song, Y. Xu, Y. Zhang, C. Wang, et al., Pyrolysis characteristics of sucrose biomass in a tubular reactor and a thermogravimetric analysis. Fuel 95, 425–430 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.11.054
M.-J. Choi, Y. Jeong, J. Kim, Air gasification of polyethylene terephthalate using a two-stage gasifier with active carbon for the production of H2 and CO. Energy 223, 120122 (2021)
M. Dassisti, G. Brunetti, Introduction to magnetorheological fluids, in Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-803581-8.11744-8
S. Dentel, Y. Qi, Management of Sludges, biosolids, and residuals, in Comprehensive Water Quality and Purification, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-382182-9.00049-9
S. Dharmaraj, V. Ashokkumar, R. Pandiyan, H. Halimatul Munawaroh, K. Chew, W. Chen, C. Ngamcharussrivichai, Pyrolysis: An effective technique for degradation of COVID-19 medical wastes. Chemosphere 275, 130092 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130092
DieselNet, Catalytic Coating & Materials (2021). https://dieselnet.com/tech/cat_mat.php. Accessed 19 July 2021
W. Doherty, A. Reynolds, D. Kennedy, The effect of air preheating in a biomass CFB gasifier using ASPEN plus simulation. Biomass Bioenergy 33(9), 1158–1167 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2009.05.004
J. Dong, Y. Tang, A. Nzihou, Y. Chi, E. Weiss-Hortala, M. Ni, Life cycle assessment of pyrolysis, gasification and incineration waste-to-energy technologies: Theoretical analysis and case study of commercial plants. Sci. Total Environ. 626, 744–753 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.151
J. Donohue, Water conditioning, industrial, in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2003), pp. 671–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-227410-5/00819-x
C. Dupont, J. Commandré, P. Gauthier, G. Boissonnet, S. Salvador, D. Schweich, Biomass pyrolysis experiments in an analytical entrained flow reactor between 1073K and 1273K. Fuel 87(7), 1155–1164 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2007.06.028
A. Dutta, B. Acharya, Production of bio-syngas and biohydrogen via gasification, in Handbook of Biofuels Production, (Woodhead Publishing, Oxford, 2011), pp. 420–459. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857090492.3.420
S. El-Haggar, Current practice and future sustainability, in Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management, (Springer, Cham, 2007), pp. 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012373623-9/50003-4
A. Erdogan, M. Yilmazoglu, Plasma gasification of the medical waste. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46(57), 29108–29125 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.12.069
G. Evans, C. Smith, Biomass to liquids technology, in Comprehensive Renewable Energy, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2012), pp. 155–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-087872-0.00515-1
F. Fantozzi, S. Colantoni, P. Bartocci, U. Desideri, Rotary kiln slow pyrolysis for syngas and char production from biomass and waste—Part I: Working envelope of the reactor. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power 129(4), 901–907 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2720521
K. Funk, J. Milford, T. Simpkins, Waste not, want not: Analyzing the economic and environmental viability of waste-to-energy technology for site-specific optimization of renewable energy options. Bioenergy 2020, 385–423 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815497-7.00019-1
D. Geary, Environmental Movement (2018). Encyclopedia.com. Encyclopedia.com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/environmental-movement. Accessed 15 Aug 2021
M. Giugliano, E. Ranzi, Thermal treatments of waste. Waste to Energy (WtE), in Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and Chemical Engineering, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-409547-2.11523-9
J. Grace, C. Lim, Properties of circulating fluidized beds (CFB) relevant to combustion and gasification systems, in Fluidized Bed Technologies for Near-Zero Emission Combustion and Gasification, (Woodhead Publishing, Philadelphia, 2013), pp. 147–176. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857098801.1.147
R. Gumisiriza, J. Hawumba, M. Okure, O. Hensel, Biomass waste-to-energy valorization technologies: A review case for banana processing in Uganda. Biotechnol. Biofuels 10, 1 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-016-0689-5
P. Harvey, S. Baghri, B. Reed, Emergency Sanitation (WEDC, Wisconsin, 2002), p. 358
C. Higman, Gasification process technology, in Advances in Clean Hydrocarbon Fuel Processing, (Woodhead Publishing, New York, 2011), pp. 155–185. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857093783.2.155
H. Hofbauer, M. Materazzi, Waste gasification processes for SNG production, in Substitute Natural Gas from Waste, (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2019), pp. 105–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815554-7.00007-6
M. Hossain, P. Charpentier, Hydrogen production by gasification of biomass and opportunity fuels, in Compendium of Hydrogen Energy, (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2015), pp. 137–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-78242-361-4.00006-6
H. Huang, L. Tang, Treatment of organic waste using thermal plasma pyrolysis technology. Energ. Conver. Manage. 48(4), 1331–1337 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2006.08.013
Industrial Revolution, (2019). https://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/industrial-revolution. Accessed 1 Feb 2021
W. Jangsawang, K. Laohalidanond, S. Kerdsuwan, Optimum equivalence ratio of biomass gasification process based on thermodynamic equilibrium model. Energy Procedia 79, 520–527 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.528
J. Jeong, C. Yang, U. Lee, S. Jeong, Characteristics of the pyrolytic products from the fast pyrolysis of palm kernel cake in a bench-scale fluidized bed reactor. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 145, 104708 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2019.104708
J. Kabugo, S. Jämsä-Jounela, R. Schiemann, C. Binder, Industry 4.0 based process data analytics platform: A waste-to-energy plant case study. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 115, 105508 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2019.105508
R. Kandiyoti, A. Herod, K. Bartle, Pyrolysis: Thermal breakdown of solid fuels in a gaseous environment, in Solid Fuels and Heavy Hydrocarbon Liquids, (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2006), pp. 36–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-008044486-4/50003-9
S. Kern, M. Halwachs, G. Kampichler, C. Pfeifer, T. Pröll, H. Hofbauer, Rotary kiln pyrolysis of straw and fermentation residues in a 3MW pilot plant – Influence of pyrolysis temperature on pyrolysis product performance. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 97, 1–10 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2012.05.006
F. Kerscher, A. Stary, S. Gleis, A. Ulrich, H. Klein, H. Spliethoff, Low-carbon hydrogen production via electron beam plasma methane pyrolysis: Techno-economic analysis and carbon footprint assessment. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46(38), 19897–19912 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.03.114
P. Kuo, B. Illathukandy, W. Wu, J. Chang, Plasma gasification performances of various raw and torrefied biomass materials using different gasifying agents. Bioresour. Technol. 314, 123740 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123740
S. Lee, J. Lee, Y. Tsang, Y. Kim, J. Jae, S. Jung, Y. Park, Production of value-added aromatics from wasted COVID-19 mask via catalytic pyrolysis. Environ. Pollut. 283, 117060 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117060
L. Leng, L. Yang, J. Chen, Y. Hu, H. Li, H. Li, et al., Valorization of the aqueous phase produced from wet and dry thermochemical processing biomass: A review. J. Clean. Prod. 294, 126238 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126238
T. Letcher, D. Vallero, Waste, 2nd edn. (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2019), pp. 600–605
A. Li, X. Li, S. Li, Y. Ren, Y. Chi, J. Yan, K. Cen, Pyrolysis of solid waste in a rotary kiln: Influence of final pyrolysis temperature on the pyrolysis products. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 50(2), 149–162 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-2370(99)00025-x
S. Li, Y. Li, Q. Lu, J. Zhu, Y. Yao, S. Bao, Integrated drying and incineration of wet sewage sludge in combined bubbling and circulating fluidized bed units. Waste Manag. 34(12), 2561–2566 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.08.018
Y. Liu, Y. Song, C. Ran, A. Ali Siyal, Z. Jiang, P. Chtaeva, et al., Characterization and analysis of condensates and non-condensable gases from furfural residue via fast pyrolysis in a bubbling fluidized bed reactor. Waste Manag. 125, 77–86 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.02.025
Y. Liu, Y. Song, C. Ran, A. Siyal, P. Chtaeva, J. Dai, et al., Pyrolysis of furfural residue in a bubbling fluidized bed reactor: Biochar characterization and analysis. Energy 211, 118966 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118966
M. Mastellone, F. Perugini, M. Ponte, U. Arena, Fluidized bed pyrolysis of a recycled polyethylene. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 76(3), 479–487 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0141-3910(02)00052-6
A. Matayeva, F. Basile, F. Cavani, D. Bianchi, S. Chiaberge, Development of upgraded bio-oil via liquefaction and pyrolysis. Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal. 2019, 231–256 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64127-4.00012-4
J. Matthey, A review of catalytic combustion | johnson matthey technology review. Johnson Matthey Technology Review (1984). https://www.technology.matthey.com/article/28/1/12-12/. Accessed 19 July 2021
V. Messerle, A. Mosse, A. Ustimenko, Processing of biomedical waste in plasma gasifier. Waste Manag. 79, 791–799 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.08.048
B. Miller, Clean Coal Engineering Technology, 2nd edn. (Butterworth-Heinemann, New York, 2016)
R. Moharir, P. Gautam, S. Kumar, Waste treatment processes/technologies for energy recovery, in Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2019), pp. 53–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64083-3.00004-x
Moving Grate, Igniss Energy (2021). http://www.igniss.com/moving-grate. Accessed 18 July 2021
B. Mvelase, T. Majozi, Optimization of the integrated gasification combined cycle using advanced mathematical models. 12th International Symposium On Process Systems Engineering and 25th European Symposium On Computer Aided Process Engineering (2015). pp. 1481–1486. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-63577-8.50092-9
R. Nachenius, F. Ronsse, R. Venderbosch, W. Prins, Biomass Pyrolysis. Chem. Eng. Renew Conver. 75–139 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-386505-2.00002-x
M. Niaounakis, C. Halvadakis, Waste Management Series. Olive Process Waste Manage. 5, 235–292 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0713-2743(06)80012-7
A. Nuamah, A. Malmgren, G. Riley, E. Lester, Biomass co-firing. Comprehens. Renew. Energy 2012, 55–73 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-087872-0.00506-0
M. Nurul Islam, M. Nurul Islam, M. Rafiqul Alam Beg, M. Rofiqul Islam, Pyrolytic oil from fixed bed pyrolysis of municipal solid waste and its characterization. Renew. Energy 30(3), 413–420 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2004.05.002
S. Pang, Fuel flexible gas production. Fuel Flexible Energy Generation, 241–269 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-78242-378-2.00009-2
C. Park, H. Choi, K. Andrew Lin, E. Kwon, J. Lee, COVID-19 mask waste to energy via thermochemical pathway: Effect of co-feeding food waste. Energy 230, 120876 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.120876
J. Paul Day, Substrate contributions to automotive catalytic converter performance: The role of channel shape on catalyst efficiency. Catalysis and automotive pollution control IV, Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium (Capoc4) (1998). pp. 453-454. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-2991(98)80901-4
PEPFAR, The incinerator guidebook: A practical guide for selecting, purchasing, installing, operating and maintaining small-scale incinerators in low-resource settings (2010). Accessed 12 Feb 2021) https://path.azureedge.net/media/documents/TS_mmis_incin_guide.pdf
E. Pereira, M. Martins, Gasification technologies, in Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2017), pp. 315–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10133-2
V. Piemonte, M. Capocelli, G. Orticello, L. Di Paola, Bio-oil production and upgrading, in Membrane Technologies for Biorefining, (Woodhead Publishing, Duxford, 2016), pp. 263–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-100451-7.00011-6
C. Purnomo, W. Kurniawan, M. Aziz, Technological review on thermochemical conversion of COVID-19-related medical wastes. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 167, 105429 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105429
P. Rai, H. Singh, Z. Mueed, M. Kumar, A. Kumar, A status report on biohydrogen production from algae. Invertis. J. Sci. Technol. 13(2), 73 (2020)
R. Rathna, S. Varjani, E. Nakkeeran, Recent developments and prospects of dioxins and furans remediation. J. Environ. Manage. 223, 797–806 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.095
A. Razak, Gas turbine combustion, in Industrial Gas Turbines, (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2007), pp. 137–173. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845693404.1.137
Y. Richardson, M. Drobek, A. Julbe, J. Blin, F. Pinta, Biomass gasification to produce syngas, in Recent Advances in Thermo-Chemical Conversion of Biomass, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2015), pp. 213–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-63289-0.00008-9
S. Salaudeen, P. Arku, A. Dutta, Gasification of plastic solid waste and competitive technologies, in Plastics to Energy, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2019), pp. 269–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-813140-4.00010-8
Y. Seo, M. Alam, W. Yang, Gasification of municipal solid waste, in Gasification for Low-Grade Feedstock, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2018). https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73685
Z. Shareefdeen, A. Elkamel, S. Tse, Review of current technologies used in municipal solid waste-to-energy facilities in Canada. Clean. Techn. Environ. Policy 17(7), 1837–1846 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-015-0904-2
Z. Shareefdeen, N. Youssef, A. Taha, C. Masoud, Comments on waste to energy technologies in the United Arab Emirates, in Environmental Engineering Research, (Korean Society of Environmental Engineers, Seoul, 2019). https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2018.387
V. Sikarwar, M. Zhao, Biomass gasification, in Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies, (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2017), pp. 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10533-0
J. Speight, Waste gasification for synthetic liquid fuel production, in Gasification for Synthetic Fuel Production, (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2015), pp. 277–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-85709-802-3.00012-6
J. Speight, Production of fuels from non-fossil fuel feedstocks, in The Refinery of the Future, (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2020), pp. 391–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-816994-0.00011-7
M. Stals, E. Thijssen, J. Vangronsveld, R. Carleer, S. Schreurs, J. Yperman, Flash pyrolysis of heavy metal contaminated biomass from phytoremediation: Influence of temperature, entrained flow and wood/leaves blended pyrolysis on the behavior of heavy metals. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 87(1), 1–7 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2009.09.003
G. Su, H. Ong, S. Ibrahim, I. Fattah, M. Mofijur, C. Chong, Valorization of medical waste through pyrolysis for a cleaner environment: Progress and challenges. Environ. Pollut. 279, 116934 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116934
E. Troell, H. Kristoffersen, J. Bodin, S. Segerberg, Controlling the Cooling Process – Measurement, Analysis, and Quality Assurance. Comprehensive Materials Processing, 99–121 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-096532-1.01204-8
US Energy Department, Catalytic Combustion (2021). Energy.gov. https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/catalytic-combustion. Accessed 19 July 2021
US EPA, On-Site Incineration: Overview of Superfund Operating Experience - EPA-542-R-97-012. US EPA (1998). https://clu-in.org/download/remed/incpdf/incin.pdf. Accessed 18 July 2021
D. Vallero, Air pollutant emissions, in Fundamentals of Air Pollution, (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2014), pp. 787–827. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-401733-7.00029-3
J. Van Caneghem, A. Brems, P. Lievens, C. Block, P. Billen, I. Vermeulen, et al., Fluidized bed waste incinerators: Design, operational and environmental issues. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 38(4), 551–582 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2012.03.001
R. Wei, H. Li, Y. Chen, Y. Hu, H. Long, J. Li, C. Xu, Environmental issues related to bioenergy, in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-819727-1.00011-x
Woodard & Curran, Inc., Solid waste treatment and disposal, in Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook, (Academic Press, Amsterdam, 2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-075067963-3/50011-4
M. Yan, Antoni, J. Wang, D. Hantoko, E. Kanchanatip, Numerical investigation of MSW combustion influenced by air preheating in a full-scale moving grate incinerator. Fuel 285, 119193 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119193
Z. Yıldız, N. Kaya, Y. Topcu, H. Uzun, Pyrolysis and optimization of chicken manure wastes in fluidized bed reactor: CO2 capture in activated bio-chars. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 130, 297–305 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2019.08.011
R. Zanzi, K. Sjöström, E. Björnbom, Rapid pyrolysis of agricultural residues at high temperature. Biomass Bioenergy 23(5), 357–366 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0961-9534(02)00061-2
B. Zhang, S. Xiong, B. Xiao, D. Yu, X. Jia, Mechanism of wet sewage sludge pyrolysis in a tubular furnace. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 36(1), 355–363 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.05.100
Y. Zhang, Y. Cui, P. Chen, S. Liu, N. Zhou, K. Ding, et al., Gasification technologies and their energy potentials, in Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches, (Elsevier, Saint Louis, 2019), pp. 193–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64200-4.00014-1
Y. Zhong, J. Gao, Z. Guo, Z. Wang, Mechanism and prevention of agglomeration/Defluidization during fluidized-bed reduction of iron ore, in Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials, (IntechOpen, London, 2018). https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68488
Y. Zhu, H. Frey, Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant design and technology, in Advanced Power Plant Materials, Design and Technology, (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2010), pp. 54–88. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845699468.1.54
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Shareefdeen, Z., Al-Najjar, H. (2022). Waste-to-Energy Technologies. In: Shareefdeen, Z. (eds) Hazardous Waste Management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95262-4_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95262-4_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-95261-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-95262-4
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)