Abstract
The term ‘Anthropocene’ was promulgated by Paul J. Crutzen in 2000. Anthropogenic threats to human survival posed by the atom bomb and global climate change began in the new geological epoch of the Anthropocene. They require a joint approach within the framework of holistic peace ecology and a transformative strategy towards an ecological peace policy. Since 1945 Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced many violent conflicts and human-induced disasters. Due to population growth, the demand for water, agricultural land and food supplies will increase, while there may be an even greater shortage of food supplies and jobs by 2100. These climate-related environmental scarcities may result in new forms of violent climate conflicts. Tipping points in the climate system may trigger geopolitical conflicts. This chapter summarises the key ecological challenges which Africa has faced since 1945, reviews the conflicts Africa has experienced, and assesses their implications for peace research and environmental studies in Africa and the limited work on the connections between the two fields of research. This text discusses the relevance of a peace ecology approach and the need for an ecological peace policy for Africa and reflects on the need to rethink and integrate research and action in Africa in the Anthropocene.
PD Dr. Hans Günter Brauch, chairman of AFES-PRESS; chairman of the board of the Hans Günter Brauch Foundation on Peace and Ecology in the Anthropocene (HGBS), and editor of this Anthropocene (APESS) book series.
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Notes
- 1.
This text addresses two themes the author has been working on for some time and thus builds on several previous texts that were authored and co-authored on ‘peace ecology’ and the ‘Anthropocene’ (Brauch 2012, 2014, 2016, 2016a; Brauch et al. 2011, 2015; Brauch/Oswald Spring 2011, 2015; Brauch et al. (2016); Crutzen/Brauch 2016; Oswald Spring et al. 2009, 2014a). This chapter builds on Brauch (2021), the copyright of which the author retained. Additional new texts on these themes by this author are in preparation and will be published in the years to come.
- 2.
I appreciate the constructive comments on a first draft of 25 April 2021 received from Dr Hans Happes (Germany), former headmaster of a grammar school (Nikolaus-Kistner-Gymnasium), who has been working in Sumbawanga (Tanzania) since his retirement; the co-editors of this book, Dr Kiyala Jean Chrysostome (Democratic Republic of Congo) and Prof. Dr Geoff Thomas Harris (Australia), both of the Durban Institute of Technology, Durban, South Africa; Prof. Dr Jürgen Scheffran, Geography Department, Hamburg University and Head of CLISEC; Prof. Em. Dr Michael Brzoska, Hamburg University, former Director of the Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy, Hamburg University (ISFH); Prof. Em. Nils Petter Gleditsch, Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), Norway; Prof. Em. Dr Peter Wallensteen, Uppsala University, Sweden.
- 3.
- 4.
See: Bourantonis/Wiener (1995), Volgy/Imwalle (1995), Westad (2007) Jackson/O’Malley (2018), Conca (2015); “List of proxy wars”, at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_proxy_wars; “Proxy Wars in Africa”, at: https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Proxy_Wars_in_Africa; (Manyok 2008): “War of Proxy, Legacies of the Cold War on the Third World Countries: The Case of Congo and Angola”, at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292368497_War_of_Proxy_Legaciesof_the_Cold_War_on_the_Third_World_Countries_The_Case_of_Congo_and_Angola (11 June 2021).
- 5.
- 6.
See: Die Bundesregierung (2021): “Climate Change Act 2021: Intergenerational contract for the climate”; at: https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/themen/klimaschutz/climate-change-act-2021-1913970 (8 June 2021).
- 7.
For an annual overview of global military expenditure, see: “SIPRI Military Expenditure Database”, at: https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex. This database “contains consistent time series on the military spending of countries for the period 1949–2020”.
- 8.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was a British political philosopher who, in International Relations, is considered a pioneer of modern realist thinking, which is influenced by the role of military and economic power.
- 9.
This text addresses two themes the author has been working on for some time and thus builds on several previous texts that were authored and co-authored on ‘peace ecology’ and the ‘Anthropocene’ (Brauch 2014, 2016, 2017; Brauch et al. 2011, 2015, 2016; Brauch/Oswald Spring 2011, 2015, 2017; Crutzen/Brauch 2016; Oswald Spring et al. 2009, 2014, 2014a). Additional new texts by this author are in preparation and will be published in the years to come.
- 10.
The concept of ‘geoecology’ was introduced by Huggett (1995). In 2021, many geography departments, primarily in Central and Eastern Europe, are offering Bachelors and Masters degree courses in geoecology.
- 11.
The Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC is scheduled to be released between October 2021 (WG 1) and October 2022 (WG II, WG III, Synthesis Report) and may be accessed here: https://www.ipcc.ch/assessment-report/ar6/ (8 June 2021).
- 12.
‘Geoecology’ is a concept formulated by Huggett (1995) within physical geography. The proposal of ‘political geoecology’ is to combine approaches in physical and human geography or between the natural and the social sciences, while ‘peace ecology’ is an approach that proposes integrating ecological approaches with research programmes in the social sciences and peace studies.
- 13.
- 14.
See: Fachkommission Fluchtursachen (2021: 181–215): at: fk-fluchtursachen@bmz.bund.de.
- 15.
The Commission on Environment, Economic and Social Policy of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) addresses “the integration of natural resource management in conflict prevention, mitigation, resolution, and recovery to build resilience in communities affected by conflict” that are “cross-cutting and relevant in all areas of conservation, sustainable development and security”. This IUCN’s commission works on these five areas: 1. social conflicts and peace, 2. security and peace, 3. ecological conflicts and peace, 4. peacebuilding, and 5. conflict resolution. See at: https://www.iucn.org/commissions/commission-environmental-economic-and-social-policy/our-work/environment-and-peace (11 April 2021).
- 16.
For an overview with many sources, see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_peacebuilding (11 April 2021). See also the websites on environmental peacebuilding, at: https://www.epmooc.org/ (11 April 2021).
- 17.
For a summary of the emerging debate by Lesley Evans Ogden on “Environmental peacebuilding”, see: BioScience, 68,3 (March 2018): 157–163.
- 18.
See Florian Krampe, summary of PhD thesis at Uppsala University, at: http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A945418&dswid=-1351 (11 April 2021).
- 19.
See Mark Notaras (UNU), at: https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/building-peace-through-environmental-conservation (11 April 2021).
- 20.
In SIPRI’s research programme “climate change and environmental degradation are already impacting peace and security in diverse ways. At the same time, the change needed to transition to lower-carbon, greener economies is fraught with risks, but also offers many opportunities to contribute to more peaceful, sustainable societies. Environment of Peace will synthesize the best available evidence on environmental change and its societal impacts. It will present new insights on the risks, challenges and promising solutions. And it will illuminate pathways for policy and action. The initiative will release a major report in 2022, marking 50 years since the landmark United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (the Stockholm Conference). See at: https://www.sipri.org/research/peace-and-development/environment-peace (11 April 2021).
- 21.
On 22 September 2020 the US Institute of Peace presented: “The new Ecological Threat Register (ETR), produced by the Institute for Economics and Peace, [that] synthesizes and visualizes data on environmental indicators to estimate which countries, regions, and areas are most vulnerable to environment-induced conflict. In particular, the ETR underscores that 141 countries are vulnerable to ecological threats, and that approximately 1.2 billion people could be displaced globally by ecological disasters in the next 30 years. On September 22, USIP and the Institute for Economics and Peace examined the inaugural Ecological Threat Register, as experts explored the nexus between conflict and climate change and considered strategies for boosting resilience to climate-induced insecurity.” See at: https://www.usip.org/events/ecological-threats-peace (11 April 2021).
- 22.
See: “Making Peace with Nature”, at: https://www.dw.com/en/making-peace-with-nature/a-56615328 (11 April 2021). This UNEP (2019) report Global Environmental Outlook 2019 – Healthy Planet – Healthy People (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) says “A new UN blueprint offers an integrated ‘peace plan’ to tackle three interlinked environmental emergencies – the climate crisis, biodiversity loss and pollution – that cannot be solved in isolation.” See UNEP’s GEO-6 (Nairobi 2019) report https://www.unep.org/resources/global-environment-outlook-6, which suggests a holistic approach:
Fifth, environmental policy is necessary but inadequate by itself to address systemic ecological problems, solutions to which require a more holistic approach. Current (inter)national policies are not on track to address the key environmental challenges effectively and equitably, in line with the aspirations of the SDGs. Environmental considerations need to be integrated into all policy areas, such that the potential and actual implications for natural resources and the environment are robustly included in policies for economic growth, technological development and urban design, so that there is effective long-term decoupling between economic growth, resource use and environmental degradation. Climate mitigation needs to be accompanied by policy for the equitable adaptation to committed climate change. Policies will only be effective if they are well designed, involving clear goals and flexible mixes of policy, including monitoring, instruments aimed at achieving them […] and when access to judicial remedies are available […]. Such a holistic approach need not require additional economic costs.
- 23.
Latour (2014); for an English translation, see: https://www.cairn.info/revue-revue-juridique-de-l-environnement-2014-1-page-51.htm (11 April 2021).
- 24.
‘Material footprint’ refers to the amount of raw materials extracted from Planet Earth to meet human needs. See: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2017/goal-12/.
- 25.
The UNDP HDR (2020: 244) defined the planetary-pressures adjusted HDI (PHDI) as a: “Planetary pressures-adjusted HDI (PHDI): HDI value adjusted by the level of carbon dioxide emissions and material footprint per capita to account for excessive human pressures on the planet. It should be seen as an incentive for transformation. See technical note at: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/phdi_tn.pdf for details on how the PHDI is calculated.”
- 26.
For information on changes in the working age of the population, 1950–2100, see: UNPD (2019): 20.
- 27.
See at: https://ucdp.uu.se/downloads/charts/ (15 April 2021).
- 28.
See: Joint paper by the Commission and the Secretary-General/High Representative concerning “Climate change and international security” presented to the European Council, Brussels, 3 March 2008; at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/reports/99387.pdf; Press Conference by Security Council President, 4 April 2007; at: https://www.un.org/press/en/2007/070404_Parry.doc.htm; UN Security Council, SC/9000, 5663rd meeting, 17 April 2007: “Security Council holds first-ever debate on impact of climate change on peace, security, hearing 50 speakers”; at: https://www.un.org/press/en/2007/sc9000.doc.htm; UN, 2007: “Security Council Holds First-Ever Debate on Impact of Climate Change on Peace, Security, Hearing over 50 Speakers, UN Security Council, 5663rd Meeting, 17 April 2007”; at: https://www.un.org/press/en/2007/sc9000.doc.htm; UN (2009): “Climate change and its possible security implications”. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, A/RES/63/281 (New York: United Nations General Assembly, 11 June); UN (2009a), (2010), (2011): “Informal Thematic Debate on Human Security”; at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/president/65/initiatives/HumanSecurity.html
- 29.
See the figure: Scope of the expert assessment – Climate as a risk factor for armed conflict. Source Mach et al. (2019: 193–197).
- 30.
Collective thematic scope of special issue contributions. Source von Uexkull und Buhaug (2021), 58,1: 3–17.
- 31.
Scheffran (2020: 19-48); Balbo, Rothe, Scheffran (2020: 287–296); van Baalen, Mobjörk (2018: 547–575); von Uexkull, Pettersson (2018: 953–968); Kamta, Schilling, Scheffran (2021: 27); Kogoui Kamta, Schilling/Scheffran (2020: 6830); Kamta et al. (2020: 95–104); Marie, Yirga, Haile, et al. (2021); Schilling, Hertig, Tramblay, Scheffran (2020: 15); Shaaban, Scheffran, Böhner, Elsobki (2019: 4); Noagah Bukhari, Sow, Scheffran (2019: 161-185); Schilling, Locham, Scheffran (2018: 571-600); Solomon, Birhane Gordon, et al. (2018: 284–290); Evadzi, Scheffran, Zorita, Hünicke (2018: 183-197).
- 32.
Swain, Bali, Swain Anders, Krampe (2011); Cabot (2017).
- 33.
Brauch (2021): 111–114, Boulding/Kenneth (1978, 1989), Boulding/Elise (1988, 1992, 2000), Oswald Spring (2008a).
- 34.
Brauch (2021): 114–115; Westing (1976, 2003, 2013, 2013a).
- 35.
This section relies on Oswald Spring et al. (2016: Chapter 43).
- 36.
SDGs; at: https://sdgs.un.org/goals (15 June 2021).
- 37.
UN’s Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development; at: https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda.
- 38.
See: “01 Background Note: Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want”; at: https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/33126-doc-01_background_note.pdf .
- 39.
See: Share of fatalities from natural disasters by continent 2019. Source: M. Szmigiera, Statistica (30 March 2021), at: http://www.statista.com/statistics/273890/countries-with-the-most-fatalities-from-natural-disasters/ (18 April 2021).
- 40.
See EMDAT, at: https://www.emdat.be/ (20 April 2021).
- 41.
See: PreventionWeb; at: https://www.preventionweb.net/english/ (20 April 2021).
- 42.
See: “CO2 emissions (kt) – Sub-Saharan Africa”. Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, United States; at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT?locations=ZG (14 June 2020).
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Brauch, H.G. (2022). Peace Ecology in the Anthropocene for Africa. In: Kiyala, J.C.K., Harris, G.T. (eds) Civil Society and Peacebuilding in Sub-Saharan Africa in the Anthropocene. The Anthropocene: Politik—Economics—Society—Science, vol 34. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95179-5_2
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