Abstract
A short 6-item scale was developed to screen the level of problematic smartphone use and differentiate between the applications with influence on the analyzed phenomenon. The version in English was used in further translation and adaptation of the Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS). Scientists may also use the scale to identify the most frequently used smartphone applications and their perceived importance for the respondents. The development of the scale and validation process relies on scores provided by volunteer participants through an online assessment. The sample consisted of 240 English-speaking volunteers belonging to the 18–69 age group. The tools applied together with the Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale were the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q), the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS), the Deprivation Sensation Scale (DSS), and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). The SABAS aims to assess the level of smartphone addiction as a single construct. Factor analyses proved the existence of a single component, responsible for 52.38% of the total variance, and a good reliability coefficient (α = 0.81). The regression analysis, with the SABAS score as the dependent variable, proved that approximately 47% of the variance in SABAS was calculated for the predictor factors (R2 = 0.47). The most important predictor of SABAS was the nomophobia assessed through NMP-Q, which explained 17.6% of the total variance. SABAS has been translated into several languages all over the world, such as Italian, Persian, Indonesian, Arabic, Turkish, and Chinese. Researchers paid special attention to cultural and age-related differences, besides meticulous validation analysis. The scale proved to be reliable for assessing the problematic smartphone, both in the child and adult populations, in all the translations.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Altundağ, Y., Yandi, A., & Ünal, A. (2019). Adaptation of application-based smartphone addiction scale to Turkish cultures. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 9(2), 2. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.516365
Andreassen, C. S. (2015). Online social network site addiction: A comprehensive review. Current Addiction Reports, 2(2), 175–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-015-0056-9
Andreassen, C. S., Griffiths, M. D., Hetland, J., & Pallesen, S. (2012a). Development of a work addiction scale. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 53(3), 26–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2012.00947.x
Andreassen, C. S., Torsheim, T., Brunborg, G. S., & Pallesen, S. (2012b). Development of a Facebook addiction scale. Psychological Reports, 110(2), 501–517. https://doi.org/10.2466/02.09.18.PR0.110.2.501-517
Balhara, Y. P. S., Doric, A., Stevanovic, D., Knez, R., Singh, S., Roy Chowdhury, M. R., Kafali, H. Y., Sharma, P., Vally, Z., Vi Vu, T., Arya, S., Mahendru, A., Ransing, R., Erzin, G., & Le Thi Cam Hong Le, H. (2019). Correlates of problematic internet use among college and university students in eight countries: An international cross-sectional study. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2019.09.004
Bian, M., & Leung, L. (2015). Linking loneliness, shyness, smartphone addiction symptoms, and patterns of smartphone use to social capital. Social Science Computer Review, 33(1), 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439314528779
Bianchi, A., & Phillips, J. G. (2005). Psychological predictors of problem mobile phone use. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 8(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2005.8.39
Billieux, J. (2012). Problematic use of the mobile phone: A literature review and a pathways model. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 8, 299–307. https://doi.org/10.2174/157340012803520522
Billieux, J., Maurage, P., Lopez-Fernandez, O., Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Can disordered mobile phone use be considered a behavioral addiction? An update on current evidence and a comprehensive model for future research. Current Addiction Reports, 2(2), 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-015-0054-y
Carbonell, X., Calvo, F., Panova, T., & Beranuy, M. (2021). Consideración crítica de las adicciones digitales. Digital Education Review, 39, 39. https://doi.org/10.1344/der.2021.39.4-22
Chen, I.-H., Pakpour, A. H., Leung, H., Potenza, M. N., Su, J.-A., Lin, C.-Y., & Griffiths, M. D. (2020). Comparing generalized and specific problematic smartphone/internet use: Longitudinal relationships between smartphone application-based addiction and social media addiction and psychological distress. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 9(2), 410–419. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2020.00023
Chóliz, M. (2010). Mobile phone addiction: A point of issue. Addiction, 105(2), 373–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02854.x
Clark, M., & Calleja, K. (2008). Shopping addiction: A preliminary investigation among Maltese university students. Addiction Research & Theory, 16(6), 633–649. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066350801890050
Csibi, S., Demetrovics, Z., & Szabó, A. (2016). A Rövid Okostelefon Addikció Kérdőív (ROTAK)kidolgozása és pszichometriai validálása iskoláskorú gyermekekkel [Development and psychometric validation of the brief smartphone addiction scale with schoolchildren/auth.transl]. Psychiatria Hungarica, 31(1), 71–77. https://www.doki.net/tarsasag/pszichiatria/folyoirat.aspx?web_id=&tmi=0&f=1&an=1579#
Csibi, S., Griffiths, M. D., Cook, B., Demetrovics, Z., & Szabo, A. (2018). The psychometric properties of the smartphone application-based addiction scale (SABAS). International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 16(2), 393–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-017-9787-2
Duke, É., & Montag, C. (2017). Smartphone addiction and beyond: Initial insights on an emerging research topic and its relationship to internet addiction. In C. Montag & M. Reuter (Eds.), Internet addiction: Neuroscientific approaches and therapeutical implications including smartphone addiction (pp. 359–372). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46276-9_21
Elhai, J. D., Dvorak, R. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2017). Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030
Geyer, K., Carbonell, X., Beranuy, M., & Calvo, F. (2021). Absence of objective differences between self-identified addicted and healthy smartphone users? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(7), 3702. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph1807370
Griffiths, M. (2005). A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. Journal of Substance Use, 10(4), 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659890500114359
Griffiths, M. D., & Szabo, A. (2014). Is excessive online usage a function of medium or activity?: An empirical pilot study. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 3(1), 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1556/jba.2.2013.016
Griffiths, M. D., Szabo, A., & Terry, A. (2005). The exercise addiction inventory: A quick and easy screening tool for health practitioners. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(6), e30. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2004.017020
Gudmundsson, E. (2009). Guidelines for translating and adapting psychological instruments. Nordic Psychology, 61(2), 29–45. https://doi.org/10.1027/1901-2276.61.2.29
Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(3), 401–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00032-0
Kardefelt-Winther, D. (2014). A conceptual and methodological critique of internet addiction research: Towards a model of compensatory internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 351–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.059
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
Kuss, D. J., Shorter, G. W., van Rooij, A. J., Griffiths, M. D., & Schoenmakers, T. M. (2014). Assessing internet addiction using the parsimonious internet addiction components model—A preliminary study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12(3), 351–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-013-9459-9
Kwok, C., Leung, P. Y., Poon, K. Y., & Fung, X. C. (2021). The effects of internet gaming and social media use on physical activity, sleep, quality of life, and academic performance among university students in Hong Kong: A preliminary study. Asian Journal of Social Health and Behavior, 4(1), 36. https://doi.org/10.4103/shb.shb_81_20
Lee, J., Cho, B., Kim, Y., & Noh, J. (2015). Smartphone addiction in university students and its implication for learning. In G. Chen, V. Kumar, R. H. Kinshuk, & S. C. Kong (Eds.), Emerging issues in smart learning (pp. 297–305). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44188-6_40
Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Development and validation of a game addiction scale for adolescents. Media Psychology, 12(1), 77–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260802669458
Lin, Y.-H., Chang, L.-R., Lee, Y.-H., Tseng, H.-W., Kuo, T. B. J., & Chen, S.-H. (2014). Development and validation of the smartphone addiction inventory (SPAI). PLoS One, 9(6), e98312. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098312
Lin, C.-Y., Imani, V., Broström, A., Nilsen, P., Fung, X. C. C., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2019). Smartphone application-based addiction among Iranian adolescents: A psychometric study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 17(4), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-018-0026-2
Liu, Q., Zhou, Z., & Eichenberg, C. (2022). Editorial: Significant influencing factors and effective interventions of mobile phone addiction. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 909444. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.909444
Lopez-Fernandez, O. (2017). Short version of the smartphone addiction scale adapted to Spanish and French: Towards a cross-cultural research in problematic mobile phone use. Addictive Behaviors, 64, 275–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.11.013
López-Fernández, O., Honrubia-Serrano, M. L., & Freixa-Blanxart, M. (2012). Spanish adaptation of the “Mobile phone problem use scale” for adolescent population. Adicciones, 24(2), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.20882/adicciones.104
Mobile Behavior Report. (2014). Retrieved on 26 July 2015 from https://www.exacttarget.com/sites/exacttarget/files/deliverables/etmc-2014mobilebehaviorreport.pdf
Monacis, L., de Palo, V., Griffiths, M. D., & Sinatra, M. (2017). Social networking addiction, attachment style, and validation of the Italian version of the Bergen social media addiction scale. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 6(2), 178–186. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.6.2017.023
Nurmala, I., Nadhiroh, S. R., Pramukti, I., Tyas, L. W., Zari, A. P., Griffiths, M. D., & Lin, C.-Y. (2022). Reliability and validity study of the Indonesian smartphone application-based addiction scale (SABAS) among college students. Heliyon, 8(8), e10403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10403
Olson, J. A., Sandra, D. A., Colucci, É. S., Al Bikaii, A., Chmoulevitch, D., Nahas, J., Raz, A., & Veissière, S. P. L. (2022). Smartphone addiction is increasing across the world: A meta-analysis of 24 countries. Computers in Human Behavior, 129, 107138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107138
Oulasvirta, A., Rattenbury, T., Ma, L., & Raita, E. (2012). Habits make smartphone use more pervasive. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 16(1), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-011-0412-2
Pérez, E. J. P., Monje, M. T. R., & León, J. M. R. S. D. (2012). Mobile phone abuse or addiction. A review of the literature. Adicciones, 24(2), 2. https://doi.org/10.20882/adicciones.107
Robbins, J. M., & Joseph, P. (1985). Experiencing exercise withdrawal: Possible consequences of therapeutic and mastery running. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 23–39. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.7.1.23
Samaha, M., & Hawi, N. S. (2016). Relationships among smartphone addiction, stress, academic performance, and satisfaction with life. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 321–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.045
Saqib, N., & Amin, F. (2022). Social media addiction: A review on scale development. Management and Labour Studies, 47(3), 350–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/0258042X221091657
Sha, P., Sariyska, R., Riedl, R., Lachmann, B., & Montag, C. (2019). Linking internet communication and smartphone use disorder by taking a closer look at the Facebook and WhatsApp applications. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 9, 100148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2018.100148
Soraci, P., Ferrari, A., Antonino, U., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021). Psychometric properties of the Italian version of the smartphone application-based addiction scale (SABAS). International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 19(4), 1261–1273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00222-2
Sun, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2021). A review of theories and models applied in studies of social media addiction and implications for future research. Addictive Behaviors, 114, 106699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106699
Vally, Z., & Alowais, A. (2022). Assessing risk for smartphone addiction: Validation of an Arabic version of the smartphone application-based addiction scale. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20(2), 691–703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00395-w
Vally, Z., & El Hichami, F. (2019). An examination of problematic mobile phone use in The United Arab Emirates: Prevalence, correlates, and predictors in a college-aged sample of young adults. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 9, 100185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2019.100185
Veissière, S. P. L., & Stendel, M. (2018). Hypernatural monitoring: A social rehearsal account of smartphone addiction. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 141. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00141
Wilmer, H. H., Sherman, L. E., & Chein, J. M. (2017). Smartphones and cognition: A review of research exploring the links between mobile technology habits and cognitive functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 605. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00605
Yam, C.-W., Pakpour, A. H., Griffiths, M. D., Yau, W.-Y., Lo, C.-L. M., Ng, J. M. T., Lin, C.-Y., & Leung, H. (2019). Psychometric testing of three Chinese online-related addictive behavior instruments among Hong Kong university students. Psychiatric Quarterly, 90(1), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-018-9610-7
Yildirim, C., & Correia, A.-P. (2015). Exploring the dimensions of nomophobia: Development and validation of a self-reported questionnaire. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.059
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Appendix
Appendix
Hungarian Original Version of SABAS (ROTAK in Hungarian Abbreviation)
A Rövid Okostelefon Addikció Kérdőív (ROTAK)
1 = Egyáltalán nem értek egyet
2 = Nem értek egyet
3 = Kismértékben nem értek egyet
4 = Kismértékben egyetértek5 = Egyetértek
6 = Teljesen egyetértek
Mostanában, az okostelefonom a legkedvencebb játékom vagy szórakozásom, és fontosabb minden másnál. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Szüleim vagy tanáraim naponta többször rám szólnak, | ||||||
hogy ne játsszak az okostelefonnal, ezért már inkább | ||||||
olyankor játszom vele, amikor nem látják, vagy gyorsan | ||||||
eldugom amikor kell. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Az okostelefon izgalmas, jól érzem magam ha játszom | ||||||
vele, sőt amikor szomorú vagyok, azzal terelem el | ||||||
a figyelmemet. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Ahogy telik az idő, mind több és több dolgot tudok | ||||||
csinálni az okostelefonnal, ezért egyre többet játszom vele. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Ha nem játszhatok az okostelefonnal (pl. meg vagyok | ||||||
büntetve vagy olyan helyen vagyok ahol nem szabad), | ||||||
nem jól érzem magam, és alig várom, hogy ismét | ||||||
a kezemben legyen. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Ha meg szeretnék felelni szüleimnek vagy a tanáraimnak | ||||||
és kevesebbet játszok az okostelefonnal, az csak | ||||||
egy darabig sikerül, és utána megint annyit, vagy | ||||||
még többet játszom vele, mint korábban. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
English Original Version of SABAS
Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS)
Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the statements below in relation to your smartphone use habits
Strongly | Disagree | Slightly | Slightly | Agree | Strongly | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Disagree | Disagree | Agree | Agree | |||
My smartphone is the most important thing in my life. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Conflicts have arisen between me and my family (or friends) because of my smartphone use. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Preoccupying myself with my smartphone is a way of changing my mood (I get a buzz, or I can escape or get away, if I need to). | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Over time, I fiddled around more and more with my smartphone. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
If I cannot use or access my smartphone when I | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
feel like, I feel sad, moody, or irritable. | ||||||
If I try to cut the time I use my smartphone, I manage to do so for a while, but then I end up using it as much or more than before. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
Arabic SABAS Measure of Smartphone Use
Citation: Vally & Alowais (2022)
Indonesian Version of SABAS
Pertanyaan | Sangat Tidak Setuju (1) | Tidak Setuju (2) | Sedikit Tidak Setuju (3) | Sedikit Setuju (4) | Setuju (5) | Sangat Setuju (6) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Smartphone adalah hal terpenting dalam hidup saya | ||||||
2. Aktivitas saya menggunakan smartphone menyebabkan konflik | ||||||
3. Menyibukkan diri dengan smartphone adalah cara untuk mengubah suasana hati saya | ||||||
4. Saya menghabiskan waktu terus-menerus hanya untuk bermain smartphone | ||||||
5. Ketika saya tidak dapat menggunakan smartphone saat ingin, saya merasa sedih | ||||||
6. Jika saya mencoba mengurangi waktu menggunakan smartphone, saya semakin menggunakannya lebih lama atau lebih sering dari sebelumnya |
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Sándor, C. (2023). Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS). In: Krägeloh, C.U., Alyami, M., Medvedev, O.N. (eds) International Handbook of Behavioral Health Assessment. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89738-3_45-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89738-3_45-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-89738-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-89738-3
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Behavioral Science and PsychologyReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences