Abstract
This chapter addresses recent developments in relation to legal regulation of space mining. More specifically, we analyze international legal regimes governing utilization of natural resources located in the areas recognized as res communis omnium, to demonstrate an important paradigm shift from the national interest-driven approach to the global interest-driven regime reflecting cosmopolitan ideas. In fact, the sharing of benefits that may be derived from the exploitation of the natural resources in areas recognized as res communis omnium represents a unique opportunity to further implement cosmopolitan ideas in international practice. Special attention is given to the regime governing deep seabed mining created by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This regime represents the most cosmopolitan regime ever established. In the following text, we present space resources as exhaustible resources located in the area recognized as res communis omnium and analyze the most relevant principles of international space law bearing cosmopolitan ideals. The last part of the chapter looks at the recent efforts to formulate space mining legal regimes, both national and international. Since there is no universal approach to how natural resources located in the areas recognized as res communis omnium should be governed and how cosmopolitan ideas should be translated into international natural resource management, recently adopted regimes or initiatives cope with the cosmopolitan nature of outer space differently. We acknowledge that national space mining law appears to be the most effective tool to regulate space mining; however, it remains the most controversial one, unless states behave in a responsible cosmopolitan way.
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Notes
- 1.
See United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1803 (XVII) of 14 December 1962, Permanent Sovereignty Over Natural Resources.
- 2.
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1803 (XVII) of 14 December 1962, Permanent Sovereignty Over Natural Resources reads as follows: “The right of peoples and nations to permanent sovereignty over their natural wealth and resources must be exercised in the interest of their national development and of the well-being of the people of the State concerned.”
- 3.
The territorial ontology underpinning res nullius is that exclusive territorial possession is preeminent – and natural – legal geography. It assumes that unowned space is not beyond possession; it is simply awaiting transformation into a possession. For more details, see (Collis, 2017).
- 4.
See Art. 2(4) of the United Nations Charter.
- 5.
See Art. 4 of the Antarctic Treaty.
- 6.
See Preamble, Arts. 2.3, 6, and 34 of CRAMRA and (Beck, 1989, p. 23).
- 7.
Origins of the concept of res communis omnium may be found in Roman law. The text of jurist Marcianus, preserved in the Digest of Justinian, is considered to be the first formal pronouncement in recorded legal theory on the legal status of the sea and the right of man to use the sea and its products, though it must be noted that Marcianus only dealt with the status of the sea in private law. See P.T. Fenn, Justinian and the Freedom of the Sea, Am. J. Int. Law. 19 (1925) 716–727. www.jstor.com/stable/2188310; W.J. Zwalve, The Introduction to the Jurisprudence of Holland and the Doctrine of the Free Seas, Grotiana. 30 (2009) 49–64.
- 8.
J. Klabbers, International Law 2nd Edition, Second Edi, Cambridge University Press, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316493717
- 9.
Art. 136–137, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3 (UNCSLOS).
- 10.
“Activities in the Area shall be organised, carried out and controlled by the Authority on behalf of mankind as a whole (…),” see Art. 153, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3 (UNCSLOS).
- 11.
Art. 170 and Annex IV, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3 (UNCSLOS).
- 12.
In accordance with paragraph 15 of Section 3, of the Annex to the Agreement, the Council shall consist of 36 members elected by the Assembly. For more information, see https://www.isa.org.jm/authority/council/members
- 13.
See G.A. Res. 2222, 21 U.N. GAOR, Supp. (No. 16) 13, U.N. Doc. A/6316(1966); G.A. Res. 1721A, 16 U.N. GAOR, Supp. (No. 17) 7, U.N. Doc. A/5100(1962); https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/147638686.pdf
- 14.
The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. See United Nations, International Space Law: United Nations Instruments (UNOOSA 2017) available at https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/stspace/stspace61rev_2_0_html/V1605998-ENGLISH.pdf.
- 15.
The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects. See United Nations, International Space Law: United Nations Instruments (UNOOSA 2017) available at https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/stspace/stspace61rev_2_0_html/V1605998-ENGLISH.pdf.
- 16.
The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space. See United Nations, International Space Law: United Nations Instruments (UNOOSA 2017) available at https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/stspace/stspace61rev_2_0_html/V1605998-ENGLISH.pdf.
- 17.
The Moon Agreement “The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.” See United Nations, International Space Law: United Nations Instruments (UNOOSA 2017). available at available at https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/stspace/stspace61rev_2_0_html/V1605998-ENGLISH.pdf
- 18.
The Preamble, The Moon Agreement “The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.” See United Nations, International Space Law: United Nations Instruments (UNOOSA 2017) available at available at https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/stspace/stspace61rev_2_0_html/V1605998-ENGLISH.pdf.
- 19.
Art. 11 (6) of the Moon Agreement.
- 20.
It is worth acknowledging that no spacefaring nation has ratified the Moon Agreement.
- 21.
Art. 1 of the OST.
- 22.
UN General Assembly Resolution 51/122 of 4 February 1997.
- 23.
See Luxembourg Space Agency’s SpaceResources. Lu Initiative at https://space-agency.public.lu/en/space-resources/the-initiative.html
- 24.
See European Space Agency’s Space Resources Strategy at https://exploration.esa.int/web/moon/-/61369-esa-space-resources-strategy
- 25.
See Japan’s outline on space policy at https://www8.cao.go.jp/space/english/index-e.html
- 26.
National Space Policy of the United States of America at https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/
- 27.
See National Space Policy of the United Arab Emirates at https://space.gov.ae/Documents/PublicationPDFFiles/UAE_National_Space_Policy_English.pdf
- 28.
See the original Luxembourg’s Loi Du 20 Juillet 2017 Sur l’exploration et l’utilisation Des Ressources de l’espace.
- 29.
Federal Law No. (12) of 2019 on the regulation of the space sector, 2019.
- 30.
See SEC. 403 – disclaimer of extraterritorial sovereignty in the US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act.
- 31.
Art. 32 of the ILC’s Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. See the annex to General Assembly Resolution 56/83 of 12 December 2001; Art. 27 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331.
- 32.
See Article II of the UN Charter; (Jamnjead & Wood, 2009).
- 33.
As you can see in other chapters in this volume, a number of authors do not even accept the concept of responsible cosmopolitan state, because the concepts cosmopolitan and state are logical antonyms.
- 34.
See para. 280 of Report of the Legal Subcommittee on Its Fifty-eighth Session, held in Vienna from 1 to 12 April 2019, UN Doc A/AC.105/1203.
- 35.
See para. 258 of Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Sixty-second Session (12–21 June 2019); UN Doc A/74/20.
- 36.
“XIII. General Exchange of Views on Potential Legal Models for Activities in Exploration, Exploitation and Utilisation of Space Resources. Draft Report of the Legal Subcommittee of the UN COPUOS on Its Sixtieth Session (31 May – 11 June 2021) UN Doc A/AC.1”
- 37.
See BB 8.1: The international framework should ensure that resource rights over raw mineral and volatile materials extracted from space resources, as well as products derived therefrom, can lawfully be acquired through domestic legislation, bilateral agreements, and/or multilateral agreements.
- 38.
See BB 4.2: The international framework should be designed to (…) (d) prevent disputes arising out of space resource activities.
- 39.
UN General Assembly Resolution 51/122 of 4 February 1997.
- 40.
A network of world’s leading space experts united by their commitment to highly innovative, transdisciplinary research that addresses grand challenges facing the continued use and exploration of space, comprising physical scientists, social scientists, lawyers, engineers, industry leaders, and policy-makers. See http://outerspaceinstitute.ca/
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This research was supported by the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic, Grant TL01000181: “A multidisciplinary analysis of planetary defense from asteroids as the key national policy ensuring further flourishing and prosperity of humankind both on Earth and in Space.”
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Švec, M., Schmidt, N. (2022). Space Mining: Attempts to Materialize Cosmopolitan Ideas Enshrined in International Space Law. In: Schmidt, N. (eds) Governance of Emerging Space Challenges. Space and Society. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86555-9_8
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