Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Aflatoxins: A Brief Summary

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Aflatoxins in Food

  • 528 Accesses

Abstract

Aflatoxins are the highly toxic secondary metabolites of fungal species of Aspergillus origin, particularly of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins are present in a number of food commodities, especially cereals, spices, dry fruits, and milk and milk products. Aflatoxins are classified as group 1 category carcinogenic compound by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and are also hepatotoxic, immunosuppressant, growth retardant, teratogenic, and mutagenic. Based on the severe health implications of aflatoxins, countries across the world have established maximum permissible limits/regulations for aflatoxins in different foodstuffs. Prevalence of aflatoxins in a number of food commodities and its highly toxic nature have compelled the researchers across the world to explore safe, reliable, and commercially implementable methods for the removal/degradation of aflatoxins.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Achaglinkame MA, Opoku N, Amagloh FK (2017) Aflatoxin contamination in cereals and legumes to reconsider usage as complementary food ingredients for Ghanaian infants: a review. J Nutr Intermed Metab 10:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alves A, Kucharska A, Erratico C, Xu F, Den Hond E, Koppen G, Vanermen G, Covaci A, Voorspoels S (2014) Human biomonitoring of emerging pollutants through non-invasive matrices: state of the art and future potential. Anal Bioanal Chem 406(17):4063–4088

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bediako KA, Ofori K, Offei SK, Dzidzienyo D, Asibuo JY, Amoah RA (2019) Aflatoxin contamination of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.): predisposing factors and management interventions. Food Control 98:61–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benkerroum N (2020) Aflatoxins: producing-molds, structure, health issues and incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(4):1215

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bueno DJ, Casale CH, Pizzolitto RP, Salvano MA, Oliver G (2007) Physical adsorption of aflatoxin B1 by lactic acid bacteria and Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a theoretical model. J Food Prot 70(9):2148–2154

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cai P, Zheng H, She J, Feng N, Zou H, Gu J, Yuan Y, Liu X, Liu Z, Bian J (2020) Molecular mechanism of aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma derived from a bioinformatics analysis. Toxins 12(3):203

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chang PK, Scharfenstein LL, Luo M, Mahoney N, Molyneux RJ, Yu J, Brown RL, Campbell BC (2011) Loss of msnA, a putative stress regulatory gene, in Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus increased production of conidia, aflatoxins and kojic acid. Toxins 3(1):82–104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen C, Riley RT, Wu F (2018) Dietary fumonisin and growth impairment in children and animals: a review. Compr Rev Food Sci 17(6):1448–1464

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chlebicz A, Śliżewska K (2020) In vitro detoxification of aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, T-2 toxin and zearalenone by probiotic bacteria from genus Lactobacillus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Probiotics Antimicro 12(1):289–301

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cole RJ, Kirksey JW (1971) Aflatoxin G1 metabolism by Rhizopus species. J Agric Food Chem 19(2):222–223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deng J, Zhao L, Zhang NY, Karrow NA, Krumm CS, Qi DS, Sun LH (2018) Aflatoxin B1 metabolism: regulation by phase I and II metabolizing enzymes and chemoprotective agents. Mutat Res Rev Mutat Res 778:79–89

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dhanasekaran D, Shanmugapriya S, Thajuddin N, Panneerselvam A (2011) Aflatoxins and aflatoxicosis in human and animals. Aflatoxins-Biochem Mol Biol:221–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Eskola M, Kos G, Elliott CT, Hajšlová J, Mayar S, Krska R (2020) Worldwide contamination of food-crops with mycotoxins: validity of the widely cited ‘FAO estimate’of 25%. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 60(16):2773–2789

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira RG, Cardoso MV, de Souza Furtado KM, Espíndola KMM, Amorim RP, Monteiro MC (2019) Epigenetic alterations caused by aflatoxin B1: a public health risk in the induction of hepatocellular carcinoma. Transl Res 204:51–71

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fochesato AS, Cuello D, Poloni V, Galvagno MA, Dogi CA, Cavaglieri LR (2019) Aflatoxin B1 adsorption/desorption dynamics in the presence of Lactobacillus rhamnosus RC 007 in a gastrointestinal tract-simulated model. J Appl Microbiol 126(1):223–229

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harkai P, Szabó I, Cserháti M, Krifaton C, Risa A, Radó J, Balázs A, Berta K, Kriszt B (2016) Biodegradation of aflatoxin-B1 and zearalenone by Streptomyces sp. collection. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 108:48–56

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IARC (2012) Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: chemical agents and related occupations: a review of human carcinogens. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum Suppl 100F:224–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Iqbal SZ, Jinap S, Pirouz A, Faizal AA (2015) Aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products, occurrence and recent challenges: a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 46(1):110–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iqbal M, Abbas M, Adil M, Nazir A, Ahmad I (2019) Aflatoxins biosynthesis, toxicity and intervention strategies: a review. Chem Int 5(3):168–191

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ismail A, Gonçalves BL, de Neeff DV, Ponzilacqua B, Coppa CF, Hintzsche H, Sajid M, Cruz AG, Corassin CH, Oliveira CA (2018) Aflatoxin in foodstuffs: occurrence and recent advances in decontamination. Food Res Int 113:74–85

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jakopović Ž, Hanousek Čiča K, Mrvčić J, Pucić I, Čanak I, Frece J, Pleadin J, Stanzer D, Zjalić S, Markov K (2018) Properties and fermentation activity of industrial yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. uvarum, Candida utilis and Kluyveromyces marxianus exposed to AFB1, OTA and ZEA. Food Technol Biotechnol 56(2):208–217

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jubeen F, Sher F, Hazafa A, Zafar F, Ameen M, Rasheed T (2020) Evaluation and detoxification of aflatoxins in ground and tree nuts using food grade organic acids. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 29:101749

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kademi HI, Saad FT, Ulusoy BH, Baba IA, Hecer C (2019) Mathematical model for aflatoxins risk mitigation in food. J Food Eng 263:25–29

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karim G, Kamkar A (2000) A study on the effect of lactoperoxidase system (LPS) and LPS plus riboflavin on the aflatoxin M1 in milk. Iran J Vet Med 55(4):5–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Kensler TW, Roebuck BD, Wogan GN, Groopman JD (2011) Aflatoxin: a 50-year odyssey of mechanistic and translational toxicology. Toxicol Sci 120(Suppl. 1):28–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ladeira C, Frazzoli C, Orisakwe OE (2017) Engaging one health for non-communicable diseases in Africa: perspective for mycotoxins. Front Public Health 5(266). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00266

  • Leong YH, Rosma A, Latiff AA, Izzah AN (2012) Associations of serum aflatoxin B1–lysine adduct level with socio-demographic factors and aflatoxins intake from nuts and related nut products in Malaysia. Int J Hyg Environ Health 215(3):368–372

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li P, Zhang Q, Zhang W (2009) Immunoassays for aflatoxins. Trends Anal Chem 28(9):1115–1126

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li CH, Li WY, Hsu I, Liao YY, Yang CY, Taylor MC, Liu YF, Huang WH, Chang HH, Huang HL (2019) Recombinant aflatoxin-degrading F420H2-dependent reductase from mycobacterium smegmatis protects mammalian cells from aflatoxin toxicity. Toxins 11(5):259

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liao J, He Z, Xia Y, Lei Y, Liao B (2020) A review on biosynthesis and genetic regulation of aflatoxin production by major Aspergillus fungi. Oil Crop Sci 5(4):166–173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahato DK, Devi S, Pandhi S, Sharma B, Maurya KK, Mishra S, Dhawan K, Selvakumar R, Kamle M, Mishra AK (2021) Occurrence, impact on agriculture, human health, and management strategies of Zearalenone in food and feed: a review. Toxins 13(2):92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mannaa M, Kim KD (2017) Control strategies for deleterious grain fungi and mycotoxin production from preharvest to postharvest stages of cereal crops: a review. Life Sci Nat Resour Res 25:13–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall H, Meneely JP, Quinn B, Zhao Y, Bourke P, Gilmore BF, Zhang G, Elliott CT (2020) Novel decontamination approaches and their potential application for post-harvest aflatoxin control. Trends Food Sci Technol 106:489–496

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Méndez-Albores A, Arambula-Villa G, Loarca-Piña M, Castano-Tostado E, Moreno-Martínez E (2005) Safety and efficacy evaluation of aqueous citric acid to degrade B-aflatoxins in maize. Food Chem Toxicol 43(2):233–238

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mir SA, Dar B, Shah MA, Sofi SA, Hamdani AM, Oliveira CA, Moosavi MH, Khaneghah AM, Sant'Ana AS (2021) Application of new technologies in decontamination of mycotoxins in cereal grains: challenges, and perspectives. Food Chem Toxicol:111–976

    Google Scholar 

  • Mwakinyali SE, Ding X, Ming Z, Tong W, Zhang Q, Li P (2019) Recent development of aflatoxin contamination biocontrol in agricultural products. Biol Control 128:31–39

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nasir U, Naeem I, Asif M, Ismail A, Gong YY, Routledge MN, Amjad A, Fazal A, Ismail Z (2021) Assessment of aflatoxins exposure through urinary biomarker approach and the evaluation of the impacts of aflatoxins exposure on the selected health parameters of the children of Multan city of Pakistan. Food Control 123:107–863

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Negash D (2018) A review of aflatoxin: occurrence, prevention, and gaps in both food and feed safety. J Appl Microbiol Res 1:35–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Omara T, Nassazi W, Omute T, Awath A, Laker F, Kalukusu R, Musau B, Nakabuye BV, Kagoya S, Otim G (2020) Aflatoxins in Uganda: an encyclopedic review of the etiology, epidemiology, detection, quantification, exposure assessment, reduction, and control. Int J Microbiol 2020. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/4723612

  • Pankaj S, Shi H, Keener KM (2018) A review of novel physical and chemical decontamination technologies for aflatoxin in food. Trends Food Sci Technol 71:73–83

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peles F, Sipos P, Kovács S, Győri Z, Pócsi I, Pusztahelyi T (2021) Biological control and mitigation of aflatoxin contamination in commodities. Toxins 13(2):104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Peng Z, Chen L, Zhu Y, Huang Y, Hu X, Wu Q, Nüssler AK, Liu L, Yang W (2018) Current major degradation methods for aflatoxins: a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 80:155–166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips T, Afriyie-Gyawu E, Williams J, Huebner H, Ankrah NA, Ofori-Adjei D, Jolly P, Johnson N, Taylor J, Marroquin-Cardona A (2008) Reducing human exposure to aflatoxin through the use of clay: a review. Food Addit Contam 25(2):134–145

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pildain MB, Frisvad JC, Vaamonde G, Cabral D, Varga J, Samson RA (2008) Two novel aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus species from Argentinean peanuts. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 58(3):725–735

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qian GS, Ross RK, Yu MC, Yuan JM, Gao YT, Henderson BE, Wogan GN, Groopman JD (1994) A follow-up study of urinary markers of aflatoxin exposure and liver cancer risk in Shanghai, People's Republic of China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 3(1):3–10

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richard JL (2008) Discovery of aflatoxins and significant historical features. Toxin Rev 27(3–4):171–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roze LV, Hong SY, Linz JE (2013) Aflatoxin biosynthesis: current frontiers. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 4:293–311

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rushing BR, Selim MI (2019) Aflatoxin B1: a review on metabolism, toxicity, occurrence in food, occupational exposure, and detoxification methods. Food Chem Toxicol 124:81–100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tajalli F, Sarabi Jamab M, Adibpour N, Mehraban Sangatash M, Karazhyan R (2016) Evaluation of Lactobacillus rhamnosus effect on the aflatoxin M1 reduction in probiotic yogurt. J Ilam Uni Med Sci 24(5):8–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Tao F, Yao H, Hruska Z, Burger LW, Rajasekaran K, Bhatnagar D (2018) Recent development of optical methods in rapid and non-destructive detection of aflatoxin and fungal contamination in agricultural products. Trends Analyt Chem 100:65–81

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trail F, Mahanti N, Linz J (1995) Molecular biology of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Microbiology 141(4):755–765

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tumukunde E, Ma G, Li D, Yuan J, Qin L, Wang S (2020) Current research and prevention of aflatoxins in China. World Mycotoxin J 13(2):121–138

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turner PC, Moore SE, Hall AJ, Prentice AM, Wild CP (2003) Modification of immune function through exposure to dietary aflatoxin in Gambian children. Environ Health Perspect 111(2):217–220

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Visser ME, Schoonees A, Ezekiel CN, Randall NP, Naude CE (2020) Agricultural and nutritional education interventions for reducing aflatoxin exposure to improve infant and child growth in low-and middle-income countries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Ogata M, Hirai H, Kawagishi H (2011) Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 by manganese peroxidase from the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624. FEMS Microbiol Lett 314(2):164–169

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams JH, Phillips TD, Jolly PE, Stiles JK, Jolly CM, Aggarwal D (2004) Human aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences, and interventions. Am J Clin Nutr 80(5):1106–1122

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehia RS (2014) Aflatoxin detoxification by manganese peroxidase purified from Pleurotus ostreatus. Braz J Microbiol 45(1):127–134

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zaid A (2017) Biodegradation of aflatoxin by peroxidase enzyme produced by local isolate of Pseudomonas sp. Int J Sci Res Manag 5:7456–7467

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang W, He H, Zang M, Wu Q, Zhao H, Lu L, Ma P, Zheng H, Wang N, Zhang Y (2017) Genetic features of aflatoxin-associated hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 153(1):249–262

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

    Zubair Ismail, Iqra Naeem, Amir Ismail, Ambreen Fazal & Arif Shahzad

  2. Department of Food Science, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

    Kashif Akram

  3. Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil

    Carlos Augusto Fernandes de Oliveira

Authors
  1. Zubair Ismail
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kashif Akram
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Iqra Naeem
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Carlos Augusto Fernandes de Oliveira
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Amir Ismail
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ambreen Fazal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Arif Shahzad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amir Ismail .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

    Khalid Rehman Hakeem

  2. Department of Food Engineering School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil

    Carlos A. F. Oliveira

  3. Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

    Amir Ismail

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ismail, Z. et al. (2021). Aflatoxins: A Brief Summary. In: Hakeem, K.R., Oliveira, C.A.F., Ismail, A. (eds) Aflatoxins in Food. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85762-2_14

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation