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U.S. Law and Policy for the Cruise Industry

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Legal Aspects of Cruises

Part of the book series: Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law ((GSCL,volume 56))

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Abstract

The United States is a major player in the cruise industry. However, very few ocean-going cruise ships sail under the U.S. flag, as ship owners register ships under flags of convenience, that is, flags of countries with lax safety and labor regulations and weak enforcement policies. Notwithstanding the constraints caused by the use of flags of convenience because a flag state has exclusive jurisdiction over its flagged vessel on the high seas, the U.S. has a robust legislative framework regulating major aspects of cruises. This includes vessel design requirements, safety requirements, civil and criminal liability regimes, labor regulations, and environmental protection.

This chapter discusses the U.S. law and policy for the cruise industry, and the ongoing efforts to further strengthen the pertinent laws and regulations to fill the gaps still remaining.

The author extends his gratitude to Kyle Ames, J.D. 2018, and Katharine Nanda, J.D. 1982, for their excellent assistance and support.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cruise Lines International Association, Inc. (CLIA), 2018 Cruise Industry Outlook, Dec. 2017, at 7, http://cruising.org/docs/default-source/research/clia-2018-state-of-the-industry.pdf?sfvrsn=2.

  2. 2.

    Id. at 13.

  3. 3.

    Cruise Industry News, 2018 Biggest Year for New Cruise Ships since 2001, Jan. 4, 2018, https://www.cruiseindustrynews.com/cruise-news/18321-2018-biggest-year-for-new-ships-since-2001.html.

  4. 4.

    CLIA, Global Demand for Cruising Surpasses 22 Million Passengers, Increasing 68 Percent in Ten Years, Oct. 19, 2015, www.cruising.org/about-the-industry/press%2D%2Droom/press-releases/global-demand-for-cruising-surpasses-22-million-passengers-increasing-68-percent-in-ten-years.

  5. 5.

    Statistic Brain. Cruise Ship Industry Statistics. March 3, 2017, https://www.statisticbrain.com/cruise-ship-industry-statistics/ [hereinafter Cruise Ship Industry Statistics]. The percentage of Americans who have taken a cruise is 19.9%. Id.

  6. 6.

    Id.

  7. 7.

    Minister Responsible for Maritime Affairs, Merchant Shipping Act (Amendment to First Schedule), Notice, 2012, https://www.bahamasmaritime.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/MS-Maritime-Labour-Convention-Regulations-2012.pdf.

  8. 8.

    All things cruise, Cruise Departure Ports, https://allthingscruise.com/cruise-research/cruise-departure-ports/.

  9. 9.

    Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association, Cruise Industry Overview, 2017, http://www.f-cca.com/downloads/2017-Cruise-Industry-Overview-Cruise-Line-Statistics.pdf. See also CLIA, 2016 Cruise Industry Outlook, at 8 https://www.cruising.org/docs/default-source/research/2016_clia_sotci.pdf.

  10. 10.

    CLIA, 2017 Cruise Industry Outlook 14, https://www.cruising.org/docs/default-source/research/clia-2017-state-of-the-industry.pdf?sfvrsn=0.

  11. 11.

    American Cruise Lines, Cruises: Destinations, https://www.americancruiselines.com/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=us%20cruises&gclid=Cj0KCQiAyZLSBRDpARIsAH66VQKFNIvOBWc7wi7POordiVVcbId1kXlvsP3HPFYCU66KfffjKFXDBa8aAhItEALw_wcB.

  12. 12.

    See, e.g., How the cruise ship industry sails under the radar, Jan. 24, 2012, reuters.com/article/uk-italy-ship-regulation/how-the-cruise-ship-industry-sails-under-the-radar-idUSLINEBON02M0120124.

  13. 13.

    Pride of America, https://www.ncl.com/cruise-ship/pride-of-america.

  14. 14.

    Cruise Mapper, Cruise Ship Registry, Flags of Convenience, http://www.cruisemapper.com/wiki/758-cruise-ship-registry-flags-of-convenience-flag-state-control.

  15. 15.

    Id.

  16. 16.

    Id. See also CLIA, 2016 Cruise Industry Outlook 15, https://www.cruising.org/docs/default-source/research/2016_clia_sotci.pdf.

  17. 17.

    See IMO.org; United Nations Convention on the High Seas, 29 Apr. 1958, entered into force 30 September 1962, 450 U.N.T.S. 11, 82, http://www.gc.nowa.gov/documents/8_1_1958_high_seas.pdf.

  18. 18.

    Lauritzen v. Larsen, 345 U.S. 571 (1953).

  19. 19.

    Id. at 584.

  20. 20.

    Cruise Vessel Security and Safety Act of 2010, Pub. L. 111-207, 124 Stat. 2243, et seq., Jul. 27, 2010, enacted at 46 U.S.C. §3507.

  21. 21.

    Pub. L. 111-207, 124 Stat. 2243, §2. Findings.

  22. 22.

    There is voluminous literature on the topic. See, e.g., Negret (2016), p. 1.

  23. 23.

    U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, Comparison of U.S. and Foreign-Flag Operating Costs, September 2011 at 6, https://www.marad.dot.gov/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Comparison_of_US_and_Foreign_Flag_Operating_Costs.pdf.

  24. 24.

    Id. at 4.

  25. 25.

    Id. at 11.

  26. 26.

    See United States Coast Guard, homepage, http://www.uscg.mil/.

  27. 27.

    Cruise Lines Would Face Higher Federal Taxes Under Rockefeller Legislation, Aug. 7, 2013, Wolters Kluwer Tax and Accounting, http://news.cchgroup.com/2013/08/07/cruise-lines-would-face-higher-federal-taxes-under-rockefeller-legislation/. See also Bill Poling, Proposed Bills Could Raise Nearly $1 Billion in Cruise Taxes, Travel Weekly, Aug. 11, 2013, www.travelweekly.com/Cruise-Travel/Proposed-bills-could-raise-nearly-a-billion-in-cruise-taxes.

  28. 28.

    Remarks of Sen. John D. Rockefeller, IV, Chair, Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, 113th Congress, Hearing: Cruise Industry Oversight: Recent Incidents Show Need for Stronger Focus on Consumer Protection, July 24, 2013.

  29. 29.

    Id.

  30. 30.

    See Tom Stieghorst, Senate bill would tax cruise line income, Travel Weekly, Nov. 13, 2017, http://news.cchgroup.com/2013/08/07/cruise-lines-would-face-higher-federal-taxes-under-rockefeller-legislation/.

  31. 31.

    Marex, Tax reform passed, cruise tax deleted, Dec. 2, 2017, www.maritime-executive.com/article/tax-reform-passed-cruise-tax-deleted.

  32. 32.

    U.S. Const., art. III, § 2, cl. 1.

  33. 33.

    28 U.S.C. § 3033(1).

  34. 34.

    Carnival Corp. v. Carlisle, 953 So.2d 461, 464 (Fl. 2007).

  35. 35.

    Id.

  36. 36.

    Id.

  37. 37.

    Passenger Vessel Services Act, 46 U.S.C. § 55103(b).

  38. 38.

    19 C.F.R. § 4.80(b)(2).

  39. 39.

    See, e.g., Buchholz and Buchholz (2017); Kasperkevic (2017); Mak et al. (2009).

  40. 40.

    Jones Act, 46 U.S.C. §30104. The critics considered it to be protectionist and failing to serve the U.S. national interest. See generally Kashian et al. (2017), www.grassrootinstitute.org/2017/04/the-jones-act-in-perspective/.

  41. 41.

    Chandris, Inc. v. Latsis, 515 U.S. 347 (1995).

  42. 42.

    Am. Dredging Co. v. Miller, 510 U.S. 443, 456 (1994).

  43. 43.

    Kernan v. Am. Dredging Co., 355 U.S. 426, 439 (1958).

  44. 44.

    In re Asbestos Products Liab. Litig., 2012 WL 3242420 * 7, 10 (E.D. Pa., Aug. 7, 2012).

  45. 45.

    Death on the High Seas Act 46 U.S.C. app. §§ 761–768 (1920) (DOHSA), codified at 46 U.S.C. 303, et seq., US House of Representatives, Office of the Law Revision Council, United States Code. Chapter 303 Death on the High Seas, http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title46/subtitle3/chapter303&edition=prelim.

  46. 46.

    Id. § 30302.

  47. 47.

    46 U.S.C.A. § 30509 (Oct 6, 2006).

  48. 48.

    Shipping Act of 1984, 46 U.S.C. §1702.

  49. 49.

    Eric Weiner, Cruise, National Public Radio, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5251675.

  50. 50.

    ABC News, Congress Eyes Cruise Ship Dangers, Dec. 13, 2005, http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/story?id=1400466.

  51. 51.

    Government Publishing Office. 18 U.S.C. § 7. Special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States defined.

  52. 52.

    Id., https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2010-title18/pdf/USCODE-2010-title18-partI-chap1-sec7.pdf.

  53. 53.

    U.S. Dep’t of Transp., Cruise Line Incident Reports, 2016 and 2017, https://www.transportation.gov/mission/safety/cruise-line-incident-reports [hereinafter DOT Incident Reports].

  54. 54.

    Mike M. Alhers. Passengers lack public info on cruise ship crime. July 25, 2013. CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/24/travel/cruise-ship-crime/index.html.

  55. 55.

    See DOT Incident Reports, supra note 53, original “not under investigation” restriction, which is appended to each quarter’s data from January of 2010, to December of 2015: “The number of matters “no longer under investigation” provided on this Internet site is necessarily different than the aggregate number of matters required to be reported to the FBI per the above. A matter may be reported but not opened as a full investigation if, for example, there is insufficient evidence of a federal crime within FBI jurisdiction or prosecution is declined. The “matters no longer under investigation” provided herein do not include: 1) open investigations or pending prosecutions; 2) reported matters other than homicide, suspicious death, a missing United States national, kidnapping, assault with serious bodily injury, sexual assault, firing or tampering with a vessel, or theft of money and property in excess of $10,000; 3) any matters that were reported that did not result in open investigations, investigations, e.g., lack of federal jurisdiction.”

  56. 56.

    International Maritime Organization. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). Adoption: 1973 (Convention), 1978 (1978 Protocol), 1997 (Protocol - Annex VI); Entry into force: 2 October 1983 (Annexes I and II) http://www.imo.org/en/about/conventions/listofconventions/pages/international-convention-for-the-prevention-of-pollution-from-ships-(marpol).aspx [hereinafter MARPOL].

  57. 57.

    IMO, International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-(SOLAS),-1974.aspx [hereinafter SOLAS]. “The Convention in force today is sometimes referred to as SOLAS, 1974, as amended,” as new amendments enter into force under a “tacit acceptance procedure” contained in the 1974 version that requires express objections from an agreed number of States Parties to prevent it.

  58. 58.

    As at Jan. 23, 2018. United Nations Treaty Collection, International Maritime Organization, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XII-1&chapter=12&clang=_en.

  59. 59.

    International Maritime Organization, Introduction to IMO, 2017, www.imo.org/en/About/Pages/Default.aspx.

  60. 60.

    Convention on the International Maritime Organization, Geneva, 289 U.N.T.S. 3 (6 Mar. 1948), entry into force 17 Mar. 1958.

  61. 61.

    The IMO also functions as Secretariat for the The Convention to Prevent Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter of 1972, the “London Convention,” and its 1996 Protocol, whose purpose is to “promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.” http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Default.aspx.

  62. 62.

    MARPOL Convention, annexes I-VI. The relevant Annexes are:

    Annex I Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil (entered into force 2 October 1983); Annex II Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk (entered into force 2 October 1983): “In any case, no discharge of residues containing noxious substances is permitted within 12 miles of the nearest land”; Annex IV Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships (entered into force 27 September 2003): “[S]ewage which is not comminuted or disinfected has to be discharged at a distance of more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land”; Annex V Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships (entered into force 31 December 1988): “the most important feature of the Annex is the complete ban imposed on the disposal into the sea of all forms of plastics”; Annex VI Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships (entered into force 19 May 2005): “Sets limits on sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from ship exhausts and prohibits deliberate emissions of ozone depleting substances; designated emission control areas set more stringent standards for SOx, NOx and particulate matter. A chapter adopted in 2011 covers mandatory technical and operational energy efficiency measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions from ships.”

  63. 63.

    See Jim Walker, Over Cruise Industry’s Objection, IMO Creates Air Pollution Buffer Around U.S. and Canada http://www.cruiselawnews.com/2010/03/articles/pollution-1/over-cruise-industrys-objection-imo-creates-air-pollution-buffer-around-us-and-canada/.

  64. 64.

    International Maritime Organization, IMO regulations to reduce air pollution from ships and the review of fuel oil availability, http://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/GHG/Documents/sulphur%20limits%20FAQ_20-09-2016.pdf. See, e.g., Jonathan Saul, IMO Sets Regulations to Cut Sulphur Emissions by Ships from 2020, Oct. 27, 2016, www.gcaptain.com/imo-sets-regulations-cut-sulphur-emissions-smips-2020/.

  65. 65.

    Id.

  66. 66.

    See Rittenhouse (2017), https://www.thestreet.com/story/13945339/1/regulators-force-cruise-lines-to-sail-green.html.

  67. 67.

    Special areas means “a sea area where for recognized technical reasons in relation to its oceanographical and ecological conditions and to the particular character of its traffic, the adoption of special mandatory methods for the prevention of sea pollution by oil, noxious liquid substances, or garbage, as applicable, is required.” IMO, Guidelines for the Designation of Special Areas under MARPOL 73/78 and Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas, para. 2 [superseded], Resolution A.927(22), Adopted on 29 Nov. 2001, A/22/Res.927, 15 Jan. 2002, http://www.gc.noaa.gov/documents/gcil_sad_imo_927.pdf [hereinafter 2002 Guidelines].

    In its Annexes I, IV, and V, MARPOL defines “special area” as areas “which, for technical reasons relating to their oceanographical and ecological condition and to their sea traffic, the adoption of special mandatory methods for the prevention of sea pollution is required. Under the Convention, these special areas are provided with a higher level of protection than other areas of the sea.” Special Areas under MARPOL, 2018, http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/SpecialAreasUnderMARPOL/Pages/Default.aspx.

  68. 68.

    2002 Guidelines, supra note 67.

  69. 69.

    IMO, MARPOL 78/78, Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs), Resolution A.982(24), adopted 1 Dec. 2005, A 24/Res.982, 6 Feb. 2006, http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/PSSAs/Documents/A24-Res.982.pdf [hereinafter 2006 Guidelines].

  70. 70.

    2002 Guidelines, supra note 67, Annex at 16, 19.

  71. 71.

    Routing measures (24).

  72. 72.

    They are the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (designated a PSSA in 1990); The Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago in Cuba (1997); Malpelo Island, Colombia (2002); the sea around the Florida Keys, United States (2002); the Wadden Sea, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands (2002); Paracas National Reserve, Peru (2003); Western European Waters (2004); Extension of the existing Great Barrier Reef PSSA to include the Torres Strait (proposed by Australia and Papua New Guinea) (2005); Canary Islands, Spain (2005); the Galapagos Archipelago, Ecuador (2005); the Baltic Sea area, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Sweden (2005); the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, United States (2007); the Strait of Bonifacio, France and Italy (2011); the Saba Bank, in the North-eastern Caribbean area of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (2012); Extension of Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait to encompass the south-west part of the Coral Sea (2015); the Jomard Entrance, Papua New Guinea (2016); and Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park, the Sulu Sea, Philippines (2017), http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/PSSAs/Pages/Default.aspx. They can be seen at www.pssa.imo.org.

  73. 73.

    Id., Appendix at 1.

  74. 74.

    Id.

  75. 75.

    Id.

  76. 76.

    Id.

  77. 77.

    Archipelago of Sabana-Camaguey, Cuba (MEPC.74(40)).

  78. 78.

    Id. Appendix at 2.

  79. 79.

    Id.

  80. 80.

    Id.

  81. 81.

    See Marinelog.com, USCG issues guidance on compliance with IMO BWM Convention, Sept. 8, 2017, http://www.marinelog.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=27067:uscg-issues-guidance-on-compliance-with-imo-bwm-conventiom&Itemid=227&tmpl=component&print=1, with link to the USCG policy letter and the IMO BWM Convention documents.

  82. 82.

    IMO Ballast Water Management Convention, Sept. 8, 2017, part 7, http://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Control-and-Management-of-Ships’-Ballast-Water-and-Sediments-(BWM).aspx.

  83. 83.

    See Reuters, Princess Cruise Lines to Pay Largest-Ever Criminal Penalty for Deliberate Vessel Pollution, Dec. 1, 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-carnival-usa-pollution/carnival-princess-to-pay-record-40-million-for-pollution-cover-up-idUSKBN13Q4YB.

  84. 84.

    U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Public Affairs, Princess Cruise Lines to Pay Largest-Ever Criminal Penalty for Deliberate Vessel Pollution, Dec. 1, 2016, including links to the criminal information, joint factual statement, and plea agreement, https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/princess-cruise-lines-pay-largest-ever-criminal-penalty-deliberate-vessel-pollution.

  85. 85.

    IMO.org, About: International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, Adoption 1 Nov. 1974; Entry into force 25 May 1980, http://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-(SOLAS),-1974.aspx.

  86. 86.

    Id.

  87. 87.

    See the website of U.S. Coast Guard, www.uscg.mil. See also David A. Tyler, Coast Guard Proposes new rule on cruise ship security, Professional Mariner, Apr. 29, 2015, http://www.professionalmariner.com/May-2015/Coast-Guard-proposes-new-rule-on-cruise-ship-security/.

  88. 88.

    See USCG, www.uscg.mil.

  89. 89.

    IMO, IMO Adopts Safety Amendments for Passenger Ships, June 16, 2017, https://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/222904/imo-adopts-safety-amendments-for-passenger-ships/.

  90. 90.

    Cruise Vessel Security and Safety Act, Government Publishing Office, https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-111hr3360enr/pdf/BILLS-111hr3360enr.pdf [hereinafter CVSSA].

  91. 91.

    U.S. Congressman Ted Poe, Press Release, Cruise Vessel Security and Safety Act Becomes Law, July 27, 2010, https://poe.house.gov/press-releases?ID=51809220-DB31-4890-9A6A-D475FF729F68.

  92. 92.

    CVSSA, supra note 90.

  93. 93.

    Id. § 3507(a).

  94. 94.

    Id. § 3507(b).

  95. 95.

    Id. § 3507(c).

  96. 96.

    Id. § 3507(d) (1)-(2).

  97. 97.

    Id. § 3507(d) (3).

  98. 98.

    Id. § 3507(d)(5)(B).

  99. 99.

    Id. § 3507(e).

  100. 100.

    Id. § 3507(f).

  101. 101.

    Id. § 3507(g).

  102. 102.

    Id. § 3507(g)(3).

  103. 103.

    Id. § 3508.

  104. 104.

    See Paul Hoskins, et al., How the cruise ship industry sails under the radar, Jan. 24, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-italy-ship-regulation/how-the-cruise-ship-industry-sails-under-the-radar-idUSLNE80N02M20120124 [hereinafter Hoskins].

  105. 105.

    See Walker (2013), https://www.cruiselawnews.com/2013/12/articles/flags-of-convenience/poop-cruise-reveals-shortcomings-of-port-and-flag-state-inspections/.

  106. 106.

    See, e.g., Terry v. Carnival Corp., Order on Motions for Summary Judgment, 3 F.Supp.3d 1363 (D. S.D. FL.).

  107. 107.

    See id. Annex 6 at 33: Data for Very Serious and Serious Casualties – Fire Casualty Record, “In addition to supplying the information requested in this annex, Administrations [flag states] are urged to also supply the information listed in other relevant annexes …in particular the information contained in annex 1” (ship identification and particulars).

  108. 108.

    Hoskins, supra note 104.

  109. 109.

    Cruise Industry Oversight: Recent Incidents Show Need for Stronger Focus on Consumer Protection: Hearings before the S. Comm. on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, 113 Cong. 2013, Jul. 23, 2013, https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-113shrg94526/pdf/CHRG-113shrg94526.pdf.

  110. 110.

    Id. at 45. See also Klein (2011), pp. 67–80.

  111. 111.

    Cruise Passenger Protection Act, S.965, 115th Cong. (2017–2018); https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/965; H.R. 2173, 115th Cong. (2017–2018); https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/2173 [hereinafter CPPA].

  112. 112.

    Blumenthal and Himes Introduce Bicameral Legislation to Strengthen Cruise Passenger Safety Laws, Apr. 26, 2017, https://www.blumenthal.senate.gov/newsroom/press/release/blumenthal-and-himes-introduce-bicameral-legislation-to-strengthen-cruise-passenger-safety-laws.

  113. 113.

    Id.

  114. 114.

    Id.

  115. 115.

    CPPA, supra note 111, § 3525, SEC. 11.

  116. 116.

    Id. § 3522, SEC. 5.

  117. 117.

    Id. SEC. 6.

  118. 118.

    Id.

  119. 119.

    Id.

  120. 120.

    Id. SEC. 7.

  121. 121.

    Id.

  122. 122.

    Id.

  123. 123.

    Id.

  124. 124.

    Id.

  125. 125.

    Id. SEC. 8.

  126. 126.

    Id.

  127. 127.

    Id. SEC. 11.

  128. 128.

    Id. SEC. 9.

  129. 129.

    See, e.g., AP News, Alaska pollution regulators gear up for cruise ship season, May 3, 2017, https://www.apnews.com/d26c8908b52b41b1bbd579bd28427f85/Alaska-pollution-regulators-gear-up-for-cruise-ship-season.

  130. 130.

    Alaska Commercial Passenger Vessel Environmental Compliance Program, http://www.legis.state.ak.us/basis/statutes.asp#46.03.462.

  131. 131.

    Id. Para. 2.

  132. 132.

    See, e.g., Alaska Dept of Environmental Conservation [DEC], Division of Water, Frequently Asked Questions – Cruise Ship Wastewater Discharge Regulation and HB 80, Dec. 5, 2017, http://dec.alaska.gov/water/cruise_ships/faq.htm. See also Graywater Regulations 33-CFR Part 150, Marine Exchange of Alaska, pt. 159.3, et seq., sec. 1(a)(4), Pub. L. 106-554, 114 Stat. 2763; https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2017-title33-vol2/xml/CFR-2017-title33-vol2-part159.xml.

  133. 133.

    See Pat Forgey, State didn’t issue cruise ship pollution citations for years despite repeated violations, Aug. 13, 2015, https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/article/state-mum-years-cruise-ship-air-violations/2015/08/13/.

  134. 134.

    See Rashah McChesney, State’s cruise ship monitoring program shielded from budget cuts by tourists, Alaska Public Media, Jul. 26, 2017, https://www.alaskapublic.org/2017/07/26/states-cruise-ship-monitoring-program-shielded-from-budget-cuts-by-tourists/.

  135. 135.

    Federal Maritime Commission, Cruise Vacations: Know Before You Go, https://www.fmc.gov/assets/1/Page/PVO2014-508.pdf.

  136. 136.

    Artistic Stone Crafters, Inc. v. Safeco Ins. Company of America, 2010 WL 317472 (S.D. Ga. 2010), citing Carnival Cruise Lines, Inc. v. Shute, 499 U.S. 585, 593-95 (1991), legislatively overruled on other grounds, by 46 U.S.C § 30509.

  137. 137.

    Federal Arbitration Act, 9 U.S.C. § 1 [hereinafter FAA].

  138. 138.

    Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, 9 U.S.C. 201 (2012). See, e.g., Quiroz v. MSC Mediterranean Shipping, 522 Fed. App’x 655, 661 (11th Cir. 2013).

  139. 139.

    FAA, supra note 137, at § 2.

  140. 140.

    Bautista v. Star Cruises, 396 F.3d 1289 (11th Cir. 2005).

  141. 141.

    Id. at 1295-97.

  142. 142.

    Id. at 1294.

  143. 143.

    Id. at 1303. See Anderson (2015), p. 335.

  144. 144.

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    Ved P. Nanda

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Nanda, V.P. (2022). U.S. Law and Policy for the Cruise Industry. In: Fresnedo de Aguirre, C. (eds) Legal Aspects of Cruises. Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law, vol 56. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83090-8_9

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