Abstract
The first year of life is a time of more rapid growth, development, and maturation than any subsequent year. Growth of the body and development of the nervous system depends on an appropriate intake of calories and essential nutrients. Exclusive human milk feeding is the preferred method of feeding normal full-term infants for the first 6 months of life as recommended by most health professionals. While human milk is “uniquely superior” for infant feeding and is species specific, the most acceptable alternative is commercial formulas. When breast milk is no longer adequate, the correct approach needs to be taken for complementary feeding. Incorporating the themes of timely feeding, nutritionally sound and safe meals, and properly administering meals into complementary feeding will prompt appropriate development and growth.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
American Academy of Pediatrics soB. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics. 2012;129:e827–41.
Critch JN, Canadian Paediatric S. Nutrition, Gastroenterology C. Nutrition for healthy term infants, six to 24 months: an overview. Paediatr Child Health. 2014;19:547–52.
Lott M, Callahan E, Welker Duffy E, Story M, Daniels S. Healthy beverage consumption in early childhood: recommendations from key national health and nutrition organizations. Technical Scientific Report. Healthy Eating Research; 2019 Sept.
Kuehn B. Breastfeeding report card. JAMA. 2018;320:1426.
WHO. Breastfeeding and COVID-19 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/10665332639.
Fomon S. Recommendations for feeding normal infants. Nutrition of normal infants. St. Louis: Mosby; 1993. p. 455–8.
Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Vuksan V, Brighenti F, Cunnane SC, Rao AV, et al. Nibbling versus gorging: metabolic advantages of increased meal frequency. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:929–34.
Lönnerdal B, Atkinson S. Nitrogenous components of milk: A. human milk proteins. In: Jensen RG, editor. Handbook of milk composition. Elsevier; 1995. p. 351–68.
Ratnayake WM, Chen ZY. Trans, n-3, and n-6 fatty acids in Canadian human milk. Lipids. 1996;31(Suppl):S279–82.
Friel JK, Andrews WL, Jackson SE, Longerich HP, Mercer C, et al. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1999;67:225–47.
Lonnerdal B. Regulation of mineral and trace elements in human milk: exogenous and endogenous factors. Nutr Rev. 2000;58:223–9.
Friel JK, Bessie JC, Belkhode SL, Edgecombe C, Steele-Rodway M, Downton G, et al. Thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, and vitamin C status in premature infants receiving parenteral and enteral nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;33:64–9.
Fomon SJ, Strauss RG. Nutrient deficiencies in breast-fed infants. N Engl J Med. 1978;299:355–7.
Friel JK, Aziz K, Andrews WL, Harding SV, Courage ML, Adams RJ. A double-masked, randomized control trial of iron supplementation in early infancy in healthy term breast-fed infants. J Pediatr. 2003;143:582–6.
Nelson SE, Ziegler EE, Copeland AM, Edwards BB, Fomon SJ. Lack of adverse reactions to iron-fortified formula. Pediatrics. 1988;81:360–4.
Lonnerdal B. Breast milk: a truly functional food. Nutrition. 2000;16:509–11.
Bardanzellu F, Peroni DG, Fanos V. Human breast milk: bioactive components, from stem cells to health outcomes. Curr Nutr Rep. 2020;9:1–13.
L’Abbe MR, Friel JKJ. Enzymes in human milk. In: Huang V-S, Sinclair A, editors. Recent advances in the role of lipids in infant nutrition. Champaign: AOCS Press; 1998. p. 133–47.
Mennella JA, Jagnow CP, Beauchamp GK. Prenatal and postnatal flavor learning by human infants. Pediatrics. 2001;107(6):E88.
Ward TL, Hosid S, Ioshikhes I, Altosaar I. Human milk metagenome: a functional capacity analysis. BMC Microbiol. 2013;13:116.
Hunt KM, Foster JA, Forney LJ, Schutte UM, Beck DL, Abdo Z, et al. Characterization of the diversity and temporal stability of bacterial communities in human milk. PLoS One. 2011;6:e21313.
Andreas NJ, Kampmann B, Mehring L-DK. Human breast milk: A review on its composition and bioactivity. Early Hum Dev. 2015;91:629–35.
O’Sullivan A, Farver M, Smilowitz JT. The influence of early infant-feeding practices on the intestinal microbiome and body composition in infants. Nutr Metab Insights. 2015;8(Suppl 1):1–9.
Weaver LT, Laker MF, Nelson R. Intestinal permeability in the newborn. Arch Dis Child. 1984;59(3):236–41.
Buescher ES, McIlheran SM. Antioxidant properties of human colostrum. Pediatr Res. 1988;24:14–9.
Oveisi MR, Sadeghi N, Jannat B, Hajimahmoodi M, Behfar AO, Jannat F, et al. Human breast milk provides better antioxidant capacity than infant formula. Iran J Pharm Res. 2010;9:445–9.
Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen-Rivers LA. Differences in morbidity between breast-fed and formula-fed infants. J Pediatr. 1995;126:696–702.
Heinig MJ, Dewey KG. Health advantages of breast feeding for infants: a critical review. Nutr Res Rev. 1996;9:89–110.
Colen CG, Ramey DM. Is breast truly best? Estimating the effects of breastfeeding on long-term child health and wellbeing in the United States using sibling comparisons. Soc Sci Med. 2014;109:55–65.
Friel JK, Andrews WL, Simmons BS, L’Abbe MR, Mercer C, MacDonald A, et al. Evaluation of full-term infants fed an evaporated milk formula. Acta Paediatr. 1997;86:448–53.
Courage ML, McCloy UR, Herzberg GR, Andrews WL, Simmons BS, McDonald AC, et al. Visual acuity development and fatty acid composition of erythrocytes in full-term infants fed breast milk, commercial formula, or evaporated milk. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1998;19:9–17.
Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ, Lister G, Leeson-Payne C. Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm. Lancet. 1992;339:261–4.
Dewey KG, Cohen RJ, Brown KH, Rivera LL. Effects of exclusive breastfeeding for four versus six months on maternal nutritional status and infant motor development: results of two randomized trials in Honduras. J Nutr. 2001;131:262–7. PMID 11160544.
World Health Organization. Complementary Feeding: Report of the Global Consultation, 10–13 December. Summary of guiding principles for complementary feeding of the breastfed child. 2002:11–12.
Krebs NF. Meat as an early complementary food for infants: implications for macro-and micronutrient intakes. Issues in complementary feeding. Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program. 2007;60:221–33.
Fox MK, Pac S, Devaney B, Jankowski LJ. Feeding infants and toddlers study: what foods are infants and toddlers eating? J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104:22–30.
Agostoni C, Riva E, Giovannini M. Complementary food: international comparison on protein and energy requirement/intakes. Protein and Energy Requirements in Infancy and Childhood. Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program. 2006;58:147–56; discussion 156–9
Suggested Further Readings
Agostoni C, Riva E, Giovannini M. Complementary food: international comparison on protein and energy requirement/intakes. Protein and Energy Requirements in Infancy and Childhood. Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program. 2006;58:147–59. Karger Publishers
Bardanzellu F, Peroni DG, Fanos V. Human breast milk: bioactive components, from stem cells to health outcomes. Curr Nutr Rep. 2020;9:1–13.
Donovan SM, German JB, Lönnerdal B, Lucas A. Human milk: composition, clinical benefits and future opportunities: 90th Nestlé Nutrition Institute Workshop, Lausanne, October-November 2017. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers; 2019.
Garwolinska D, Namiesnik J, Kot-Wasik A, Hewelt-Belka W. Chemistry of human breast milk-A comprehensive review of the composition and role of milk metabolites in child development. J Agric Food Chem. 2018;66:11881–96.
Lonnerdal B. Bioactive proteins in human milk: health, nutrition, and implications for infant formulas. J Pediatr. 2016;173(Suppl):S4–9.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Cai, C., Friel, J.K., Qasem, W.A. (2022). Infants: Transition from Breast to Bottle to Solids. In: Wilson, T., Temple, N.J., Bray, G.A. (eds) Nutrition Guide for Physicians and Related Healthcare Professions. Nutrition and Health. Humana, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82515-7_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82515-7_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-82514-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-82515-7
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)