Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Vitamin A

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Food Bioactive Ingredients

  • 52 Accesses

Abstract

Vitamin A is a vital nutrient for a variety of biological processes including vision, growth, reproduction, development and regulation of immune system, and maintaining epithelium and mucus integrity in the body. Two forms of vitamin A can be found in the diet (including preformed vitamin A and provitamin A), which are found in high concentrations in animal- and plant-based foods, respectively. Vitamin A is an organic fat-soluble compound with the general chemical structure of C40H56On in which the number of oxygens varies from 0–6. Absorption of vitamin A from the proximal small intestine requires dietary fat. Instability is a big problem in some vitamins including vitamin A. The factors that affect the stability of vitamin A are different, but the main factors are light, heat, oxygen, moisture, and pH. Sufficient vitamin A is not supplied regardless of stability issues. Vitamin A deficiency is one of the health concerns, especially in developing countries, which leads to mild to severe problems that mostly are reversible and can be treated with supplementation of a certain intake of vitamin A within days or weeks. On the other hand, the overconsumption of supplements such as vitamin A is also a growing concern that can be harmful for the human health. In this chapter, various aspects associated with vitamin A including its structure, stability, health-promoting properties, mechanisms of action, applications, sources, carriers, and pharmacokinetics properties are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ahmed F. Vitamin A deficiency in Bangladesh: a review and recommendations for improvement. Public Health Nutr. 1999;2(1):1–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albertini B, Di Sabatino M, Calogerà G, Passerini N, Rodriguez L. Encapsulation of vitamin A palmitate for animal supplementation: formulation, manufacturing and stability implications. J Microencapsul. 2010;27(2):150–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sumiadai M, Ghazzay H, Al-Ani RK. Therapeutic effect of vitamin A on COVID-19 patients and its prophylactic effect on contacts. Systematic Rev Pharm. 2021;12(1):207–10.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arsić I, Vuleta G. Influence of liposomes on the stability of vitamin A incorporated in Polyacrylate hydrogel. Int J Cosmet Sci. 1999;21(4):219–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balmer JE, Blomhoff R. Gene expression regulation by retinoic acid. J Lipid Res. 2002;43(11):1773–808.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bastos Maia S, Rolland Souza AS, Costa Caminha MDF, Lins da Silva S, Callou Cruz RDSBL, Carvalho Dos Santos C, et al. Vitamin A and pregnancy: A narrative review. Nutrients. 2019;11(3):681.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bendich A, Langseth L. Safety of vitamin A. Am J Clin Nutr. 1989;49(2):358–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berry Ottaway P. 19 - stability of vitamins during food processing and storage. In: Skibsted LH, Risbo J, Andersen ML, editors. . Chemical deterioration and physical instability of food and beverages: Woodhead Publishing; 2010. p. 539–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blomhoff R, Blomhoff HK. Overview of retinoid metabolism and function. J Neurobiol. 2006;66(7):606–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blomhoff R, Green MH, Norum KR. Vitamin A: physiological and biochemical processing. Annu Rev Nutr. 1992;12:37–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Britton G. Vitamin A and Vitamin A Deficiency. In: Britton G, Pfander H, Liaaen-Jensen S, editors. Carotenoids: volume 5: nutrition and health. Basel: Birkhäuser Basel; 2009. p. 173–90.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Carazo A, Macáková K, Matoušová K, Krčmová LK, Protti M, Mladěnka P. Vitamin A update: forms, sources, kinetics, detection, function, deficiency. Therapeutic Use Toxicity Nutrients. 2021;13(5):1703.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlotti ME, Sapino S, Trotta M, Battaglia L, Vione D, Pelizzetti E. Photostability and stability over time of Retinyl palmitate in an O/W emulsion and in SLN introduced in the emulsion. J Dispers Sci Technol. 2005;26(2):125–38.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chemistry RSO, Preedy VR. Vitamin A and carotenoids: Chemistry, analysis, function and effects. Royal Society of Chemistry; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christian P, West KP Jr, Khatry SK, Katz J, Shrestha SR, Pradhan EK, et al. Night blindness of pregnancy in rural Nepal--nutritional and health risks. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(2):231–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark S, Youngman LD, Chukwurah B, Palmer A, Parish S, Peto R, et al. Effect of temperature and light on the stability of fat-soluble vitamins in whole blood over several days: implications for epidemiological studies. Int J Epidemiol. 2004;33(3):518–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conaway HH, Henning P, Lerner UH. Vitamin A metabolism, action, and role in skeletal homeostasis. Endocr Rev. 2013;34(6):766–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • consultation Roaj F We (2002) Human vitamin and mineral requirements. edition S, editor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desai KGH, Jin PH. Recent developments in microencapsulation of food ingredients. Dry Technol. 2005;23(7):1361–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • di Masi A, Leboffe L, De Marinis E, Pagano F, Cicconi L, Rochette-Egly C, et al. Retinoic acid receptors: from molecular mechanisms to cancer therapy. Mol Asp Med. 2015;41:1–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dowling JE. Vitamin A: its many roles-from vision and synaptic plasticity to infant mortality. J Comparative Physiology A Neuroethology Sensory Neural Behavioral Physiol. 2020;206(3):389–99.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • D'Souza RM, D'Souza R. Vitamin A for the treatment of children with measles--a systematic review. J Trop Pediatr. 2002;48(6):323–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Facts, Comparisons. Drug facts and comparisons 2017. Wolters Kluwer. 2017;

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahami A, Fathi M. Development of cress seed mucilage/PVA nanofibers as a novel carrier for vitamin A delivery. Food Hydrocoll. 2018;81:31–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fang Z, Bhandari B. Encapsulation of polyphenols – a review. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2010;21(10):510–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fantini MC, Becker C, Monteleone G, Pallone F, Galle PR, Neurath MF. Cutting edge: TGF-beta induces a regulatory phenotype in CD4+CD25- T cells through Foxp3 induction and down-regulation of Smad7. J Immunol. 2004;172(9):5149–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frey SK, Vogel S. Vitamin A metabolism and adipose tissue biology. Nutrients. 2011;3(1):27–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Furuta T, Neoh TL. Microencapsulation of food bioactive components by spray drying: a review. Dry Technol. 2021;39(12):1800–31.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gelain DP, Casali EA, de Oliveira RB, de Souza LF, Barreto F, Dal-Pizzol F, et al. Effects of follicle-stimulating hormone and vitamin A upon purinergic secretion by rat Sertoli cells. Mol Cell Biochem. 2005;278(1):185–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gröber U, Holick MF. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – a supportive approach with selected micronutrients. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2021:1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habibzadeh P, Stoneman EK. The novel coronavirus: a Bird‘s eye view. Inter J Occupation Environ Med. 2020;11(2):65–71.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heurtault B, Saulnier P, Pech B, Proust J-E, Benoit J-P. Physico-chemical stability of colloidal lipid particles. Biomaterials. 2003;24(23):4283–300.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hogarth CA, Griswold MD. The key role of vitamin A in spermatogenesis. J Clin Invest. 2010;120(4):956–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Huang Z, Liu Y, Qi G, Brand D, Zheng SG. Role of vitamin A in the immune system. J Clin Med. 2018;7(9):258.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Josefson D. Vitamin supplements do not reduce incidence of cancer or heart disease. BMJ. 2003;327(7406):70.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Junyaprasert VB, Mitrevej A, Sinchaipanid N, Boonme P, Wurster DE. Effect of process variables on the microencapsulation of vitamin A palmitate by gelatin-acacia coacervation. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2001;27(6):561–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessing SV. Mucous gland system of the conjunctiva. A quantitative normal anatomical study. Acta Ophthalmol. 1968;Suppl 95:1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb TD, Pugh EN. Dark adaptation and the retinoid cycle of vision. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2004;23(3):307–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough FS, Northrop-Clewes CA, Thurnham DI. The effect of vitamin A on epithelial integrity. Proc Nutr Soc. 1999;58(2):289–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGrane MM. Vitamin A regulation of gene expression: molecular mechanism of a prototype gene. J Nutr Biochem. 2007;18(8):497–508.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MD NWS. Vitamin A. In: Erdman JW, Zeisel SH, editors. Present knowledge in nutrition; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miziołek B, Bergler-Czop B, Stańkowska A, Brzezińska-Wcisło L. The safety of isotretinoin treatment in patients with bone fractures. Postepy Dermatol Alergol. 2019;36(1):18–24.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Molloy CJ, Laskin JD. Alterations in mouse epidermal keratin production induced by dietary vitamin A Deficiencya. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1985;455(1):739–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mr A-U, Re A, Sherry D. (2011). Chapter 12: metabolism and photochemistry of the retina.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mwanri L, Worsley A, Ryan P, Masika J. Supplemental vitamin A improves anemia and growth in anemic school children in Tanzania. J Nutr. 2000;130(11):2691–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nagao A. Oxidative conversion of carotenoids to retinoids and other products. J Nutr. 2004;134(1):237s–40s.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olson JMAM. Goyal A. StatPearls: Vitamin A toxicity; 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pepperberg DR, Crouch RK. An illuminating new step in visual-pigment regeneration. Lancet. 2001;358(9299):2098–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raileanu I, Diosady LL. Vitamin A stability in salt triple fortified with iodine, iron, and vitamin A. Food Nutr Bull. 2006;27(3):252–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reboul E. Mechanisms of carotenoid intestinal absorption: where do we stand? Nutrients. 2019;11(4):838.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ribeiro AM, Shahgol M, Estevinho BN, Rocha F. Microencapsulation of vitamin A by spray-drying, using binary and ternary blends of gum arabic, starch and maltodextrin. Food Hydrocoll. 2020;108:106029.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rohde CM, Manatt M, Clagett-Dame M, DeLuca HF. Vitamin A antagonizes the action of vitamin D in rats. J Nutr. 1999;129(12):2246–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ross AC. Vitamin A status: relationship to immunity and the antibody response. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1992;200(3):303–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ross AC, Restori KH. (2013). Vitamin A and the immune system.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross AC, Chen Q, Ma Y. Augmentation of antibody responses by retinoic acid and costimulatory molecules. Semin Immunol. 2009;21(1):42–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rovoli M, Pappas I, Lalas S, Gortzi O, Kontopidis G. In vitro and in vivo assessment of vitamin A encapsulation in a liposome–protein delivery system. J Liposome Res. 2019;29(2):142–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sachaniya J, Savaliya R, Goyal R, Singh S. Liposomal formulation of vitamin A for the potential treatment of osteoporosis. Int J Nanomedicine, T-NANO 2014 Abstracts. 2018;13:51–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt MK, Muslimatun S, West CE, Schultink W, Hautvast JGAJ. Vitamin A and iron supplementation of Indonesian pregnant women benefits vitamin A status of their infants. Br J Nutr. 2001;86(5):607–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schweigert FJ, Raila J. Mechanisms involved in the intestinal digestion and absorption of dietary vitamin A. J Nutr. 2002;132(2):324–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semba RD, Bloem MW. The anemia of vitamin A deficiency: epidemiology and pathogenesis. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2002;56(4):271–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sha J, Pan J, Ping P, Xuan H, Li D, Bo J, et al. Synergistic effect and mechanism of vitamin A and vitamin D on inducing apoptosis of prostate cancer cells. Mol Biol Rep. 2013;40(4):2763–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sodeinde KO, Ojo AM, Olusanya SO, Ayanda OS, Adeoye AO, Dada TM, et al. Cellulose isolated from Delonixregia pods: Characterisation and application in the encapsulation of vitamin A. Ind Crop Prod. 2021;160:113138.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sommer A, West KP, Olson JA, Ross AC. Vitamin A deficiency: health, survival, and vision. Oxford University Press; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorg O, Saurat JH. Topical retinoids in skin ageing: a focused update with reference to sun-induced epidermal vitamin A deficiency. Dermatology. 2014;228(4):314–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow JR. Vitamin A-aldehyde adducts: AMD risk and targeted therapeutics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2016;113(17):4564–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stephensen CB. Vitamin A, infection, and immune function. Annu Rev Nutr. 2001;21:167–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stephensen CB, Lietz G. Vitamin A in resistance to and recovery from infection: relevance to SARS-CoV2. Br J Nutr. 2021;126(11):1663–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vilanova N, Solans C. Vitamin A palmitate–β-cyclodextrin inclusion complexes: Characterization, protection and emulsification properties. Food Chem. 2015;175:529–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wegmüller R, Zimmermann MB, Bühr VG, Windhab EJ, Hurrell RF. Development, stability, and sensory testing of microcapsules containing iron, iodine, and vitamin A for use in food fortification. J Food Sci. 2006;71(2):S181–S7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West KP Jr. Extent of vitamin A deficiency among preschool children and women of reproductive age. J Nutr. 2002;132(9 Suppl):2857s–66s.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu X, Peng S, Bao G, Zhang H, Yin C. β-cyclodextrin inclusion complexes with vitamin A and its esters: A comparative experimental and molecular modeling study. J Mol Struct. 2021;1223:129001.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yee MMF, Chin K-Y, Ima-Nirwana S, Wong SK. Vitamin A and bone health: a review on current evidence. Molecules. 2021;26(6):1757.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yeum K-J, Aldini G, Russell RM, Krinsky NI. Antioxidant/pro-oxidant actions of carotenoids. In: Britton G, Pfander H, Liaaen-Jensen S, editors. Carotenoids: volume 5: nutrition and health. Basel: Birkhäuser Basel; 2009. p. 235–68.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Zolfaghari R, Ross AC. Multiple retinoic acid response elements cooperate to enhance the inducibility of CYP26A1 gene expression in liver. Gene. 2010;464(1–2):32–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang T, Wang Z, Wang X, Sun W, Cui X, Li R, et al. Effects of vitamin A on antioxidant functions, immune functions and production performance in male sika deer (Cervus nippon) during the first antler growth period. Ital J Anim Sci. 2019;18(1):98–104.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran

    Fatima Molavi

  2. Bioprocessing and Biodetection Lab (BBL), Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran

    Vahideh Sarabi-Aghdam

  3. Department of Food Science and Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

    Saeed Mirarab Razi

  4. Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

    Ali Rashidinejad

Authors
  1. Fatima Molavi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Vahideh Sarabi-Aghdam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Saeed Mirarab Razi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ali Rashidinejad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ali Rashidinejad .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. International Iberian Food Laboratory, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain

    Seid Mahdi Jafari

  2. Massey University, Riddet Institute, Palmerston North, New Zealand

    Ali Rashidinejad

  3. Nutrition and Food Science Group, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain

    Jesus Simal-Gandara

Section Editor information

  1. Massey University, Riddet Institute, Palmerston North, New Zealand

    Ali Rashidinejad

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Molavi, F., Sarabi-Aghdam, V., Mirarab Razi, S., Rashidinejad, A. (2022). Vitamin A. In: Jafari, S.M., Rashidinejad, A., Simal-Gandara, J. (eds) Handbook of Food Bioactive Ingredients. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81404-5_22-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81404-5_22-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-81404-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-81404-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Biomedicine and Life SciencesReference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation