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The Historical Evolution of Legal Aid in China from the Perspective of Globalisation (1890–2003)

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Histories of Legal Aid

Part of the book series: World Histories of Crime, Culture and Violence ((WHCCV))

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Abstract

From a sweeping perspective, the author examines the development of legal aid in China from 1890 to 2003. It is a long history, during which China, at various times, intentionally and dramatically imported and adopted numerous legal institutions from the West and Japan. This, however, was not a straight path due to changes in the Chinese government and later the Cultural Revolution. This chapter argues that transnational or so-called global diffusion of legal ideas and institutions does not merely occur in the present. Rather, the history of Chinese legal aid embodies the evolution of globalisation in the Chinese context for over a hundred years. From its birth to its revival, Chinese legal aid has been an ongoing project requiring the involvement of multiple historical actors, including the state, courts, bar associations, scholars, lawyers, public interest organisations, and law schools. These various actors, forming a type of infrastructure, are necessary to set the stage for the delivery of legal aid. Importantly, this chapter strongly argues that the implementation of legal aid and lawyers’ pro bono work also has symbolic value indicating that a country has instituted the rule of law and should be accepted as a sophisticated global power.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    I wish to thank Dr Qian Cheng for his help in providing historical archive materials and contributing some points to this research.

  2. 2.

    Pro bono means that professional lawyers should voluntarily donate their billable hours to people who need legal assistance, without expecting a fee or by giving a substantive fee reduction. See The American Bar Association Standing Committee on Pro Bono and Public Service (2021).

  3. 3.

    Bai (2018).

  4. 4.

    Dong (2016), pp. 77–89.

  5. 5.

    The data was drawn from the Committee of Chinese Clinic Law Education (2019).

  6. 6.

    Fan (2017).

  7. 7.

    Xu (2006).

  8. 8.

    Fan (2017). See also Xu (2006).

  9. 9.

    Cummings (2008). See also Cummings and Trubek (2008).

  10. 10.

    Boyle and Meyer (2002).

  11. 11.

    For a brief introduction to this history, see Chinese History, Semi-Colonial and Semi-Feudal Society; the Old Democratic Revolution, http://chinese-history.net/semi-colonial-and-semi-feudal-society-the-old-democratic-revolution/, accessed 14 Dec 2020.

  12. 12.

    Cui (2013).

  13. 13.

    Zeng and Zhao (2018), pp. 1093–1094.

  14. 14.

    Gong (2012).

  15. 15.

    Cheng (2015b), pp. 14–21.

  16. 16.

    Daliyuan was the highest judicial tribunal in the Qing dynasty.

  17. 17.

    Hou (2013).

  18. 18.

    Xu (2006).

  19. 19.

    Xu (2006).

  20. 20.

    Zhang (2005).

  21. 21.

    The modern laws could be distinguished from the Chinese ancient feudal laws. They embodied the value of rule by law from the West. Typically, they may have included constitutional law, civil law, criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure, as well as administrative law. See Zhang (2019).

  22. 22.

    Li (1994).

  23. 23.

    Xu (2006).

  24. 24.

    Xu (2006).

  25. 25.

    Xu (2006).

  26. 26.

    For a brief history, see The Office of the Historian, Milestones: 1899–1913, The Chinese Revolution of 1911, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/chinese-rev, accessed 14 Dec 2020.

  27. 27.

    Zeng and Zhao (2018), pp. 1214–1221, 1235–1247.

  28. 28.

    Zhang (2013).

  29. 29.

    Xu (1997).

  30. 30.

    Fan (2017).

  31. 31.

    Zhang (2013).

  32. 32.

    Wang (1924a).

  33. 33.

    Wang (1924b).

  34. 34.

    Li (2006), pp. 16–17.

  35. 35.

    Chen (2010).

  36. 36.

    News in Lawyering (1925).

  37. 37.

    Cheng (2015a).

  38. 38.

    Generally seen, it was a social movement characterised by intellectual revolution and socio-political reform. The aims of the movement were national independence, building a new culture, and political liberalism. More importantly, at this time, also the Chinese working class (proletariat) became an independent political force in Chinese history. See Totally History, May Fourth Movement (1919) in China, Summary & Facts, https://totallyhistory.com/may-fourth-movement/, accessed 14 Dec 2020.

  39. 39.

    Cheng (2015b), pp. 69–80.

  40. 40.

    Cheng (2015b), pp. 90–100.

  41. 41.

    Jiang and Han (2017).

  42. 42.

    Hou (2012).

  43. 43.

    Cheng (2016).

  44. 44.

    For a brief history, see Global Security, China – The Northern Expedition – 1926–1928, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/northern-expedition.htm, accessed 14 Mar 2021.

  45. 45.

    Hu (2013).

  46. 46.

    Wei (2010). Also, see Li and Dong (2005).

  47. 47.

    Commonly, the Six Laws included constitutional, civil law, criminal law, civil procedure, criminal procedure, and administrative law. For a brief intro, see Ying (2020).

  48. 48.

    Xu (2006).

  49. 49.

    Wu (2015).

  50. 50.

    Zhou (2002).

  51. 51.

    Zhang (2013).

  52. 52.

    Cheng (2015b), pp. 265–273.

  53. 53.

    For a comprehensive discussion of the institutionalisation of pro bono (including legal aid), see Cummings (2004).

  54. 54.

    Zhou (2002).

  55. 55.

    Zhou (2002).

  56. 56.

    Xu (2006).

  57. 57.

    Zhou (2002).

  58. 58.

    Cheng (2015b).

  59. 59.

    Cheng (2015a).

  60. 60.

    The National Salvation Association (全国各界救国联合会) was a left-wing public interest organisation. The arrested social activists were members or standing members of this organisation. See Cheng (2015a).

  61. 61.

    These included Norway’s Criminal Procedure Act (1887), Austria’s Compensation for Undue Punishment Law (1892), and Germany’s Compensation of Innocent in Retrial Act (1898). See Li and Li (2009).

  62. 62.

    Li and Li (2009).

  63. 63.

    Zhang (2003).

  64. 64.

    Zheng (2006).

  65. 65.

    Zhou (2002).

  66. 66.

    Fan (2017).

  67. 67.

    Rhode (2005), pp. 114–115. See also Fan (2017).

  68. 68.

    For example, it stipulates that if the defendant does not hire counsel, the court may designate one for them. Moreover, a defendant who is either disabled (e.g., deaf, blind, or mute) or a minor is qualified to be appointed a counsel by the courts. The term “legal aid,” however, does not appear in the criminal procedure. See Fan (2017).

  69. 69.

    See the Ministry of Justice: The Rise of Chinese Legal Aid (2019).

  70. 70.

    Liu (2006).

  71. 71.

    Dong (2015).

  72. 72.

    Liu (2006).

  73. 73.

    Wan E’xiang, The Founder of the First Legal Aid Institution (2006).

  74. 74.

    Fan (2017).

  75. 75.

    Dong (2015).

  76. 76.

    For instance, the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the United Nations) and Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers (the United Nations).

  77. 77.

    Dong (2015).

  78. 78.

    Wang and Zhang (2019).

  79. 79.

    Fan (2017).

  80. 80.

    Legal Daily, 28 July 2002.

  81. 81.

    Erie (2009).

  82. 82.

    Cummings and Trubek (2008).

  83. 83.

    Guo Jianmei: Public Interest Lawyer (2009).

  84. 84.

    Tong Lihua: Walking in the Road of Public Interest Legal Service for 20 Years (2019).

  85. 85.

    PILnet (2017).

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  1. Dongguan City College, Dongguan, China

    Jin Dong

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  1. Chicago Kent College of Law, Chicago, IL, USA

    Felice Batlan

  2. Faculty of Law, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

    Marianne Vasara-Aaltonen

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Dong, J. (2021). The Historical Evolution of Legal Aid in China from the Perspective of Globalisation (1890–2003). In: Batlan, F., Vasara-Aaltonen, M. (eds) Histories of Legal Aid. World Histories of Crime, Culture and Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80271-4_4

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