Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to provide the theoretical foundation, development, and validation, summary of initial findings, and guide for using the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) in mindfulness research. The BRS is a 6-item scale designed to measure resilience in its original meaning – as the ability to bounce back from stress. As of mid-2022, the BRS has been cited over 3800 times on Google Scholar, translated into over a dozen languages, and used around the world in more than two dozen countries. This chapter will present our validation data and additional data from a review of 140 studies showing that the BRS is reliable, valid, and consistently related to mental health and other important variables. This includes concurrent validity through consistent positive correlations with other protective factors, including mindfulness, and negative correlations with risk factors. It also includes predictive validity through consistent positive correlations with measures of positive mental health and negative correlations with measures of negative mental health. There are also 18 intervention studies presented, including 9 with mindfulness-based interventions, showing that BRS scores may be increased by interventions. Finally, the chapter presents clear guidelines for using the scale including directions for scoring and norms and cut-offs for interpreting scores. Overall, the BRS may be an important scale to include in mindfulness research because mindfulness has been consistently related to it, mindfulness interventions have increased BRS scores, and it may be a primary indicator and mediator of the beneficial effects of mindfulness.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Agnes, M. (Ed.). (2005). Webster’s new college dictionary. Wiley.
Ahern, N. R., Kiehl, E. M., Sole, M. L., & Byers, J. (2006). A review of instruments measuring resilience. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 29(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/01460860600677643
Allan, T. A. (2021). Resiliency: A systematic review of adult characterological measures of resilience and reliability and validity generalization studies of the brief resilience scale (Doctoral dissertation, Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa).
Anderson, C. (2020, July 10). Suffering (Dukkha). https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0127.xml. Retrieved May 24, 2022.
Bajaj, B., & Pande, N. (2016). Mediating role of resilience in the impact of mindfulness on life satisfaction and affect as indices of subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 93, 63–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.005
Block, J., & Kremen, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 349–361. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.349
Bluth, K., & Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A. (2017). Response to a mindful self-compassion intervention in teens: A within-person association of mindfulness, self-compassion, and emotional well-being outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 57(1), 108–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.04.001
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Campo, R. A., Bluth, K., Santacroce, S. J., Knapik, S., Tan, J., Gold, S., & Asher, G. N. (2017). A mindful self-compassion videoconference intervention for nationally recruited posttreatment young adult cancer survivors: Feasibility, acceptability, and psychosocial outcomes. Supportive Care in Cancer, 25(6), 1759–1768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-017-3586-y
Cantero-García, M., & Alonso-Tapia, J. (2018). Brief resilience scale in front children’s behavior problems (BRS-BP). Anales de Psicología, 34(3), 531. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.34.3.312601
Carver, C. S. (1998). Resilience and thriving: Issues, models, and linkages. Journal of Social Issues, 54(2), 245–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.641998064
Charney, D. S. (2004). Psychobiological mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability: Implications for successful adaptation to extreme stress. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 195–216. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.2.195
Christopher, M. S., Goerling, R. J., Rogers, B. S., Hunsinger, M., Baron, G., Bergman, A. L., & Zava, D. T. (2016). A pilot study evaluating the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention on cortisol awakening response and health outcomes among law enforcement officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 31(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-015-9161-x
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
Cohen, S., Mermelstein, R., Karmarck, T., & Hoberman, H. (1985). Measuring the functional components of social support. In I. G. Sarason & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Social support: Theory, research, and application. Martinus Nijhoff.
Colgan, D. D., Christopher, M., Bowen, S., Brems, C., Hunsinger, M., Tucker, B., & Dapolonia, E. (2019). Mindfulness-based wellness and resilience intervention among interdisciplinary primary care teams: A mixed-methods feasibility and acceptability trial. Primary Health Care Research and Development, 20, E91. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1463423619000173
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
Cooper, D. C., & Bates, M. J. (2019). Military health provider training and evaluation of a problem-solving intervention to reduce distress and enhance readiness among service members. Military Medicine, 184(5–6), e303–e311. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usy229
Davidson, R. J. (2000). Affective style, psychopathology, and resilience: Brain mechanisms and plasticity. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1196–1214. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1196
Davidson, R. J. (2016, March 2). The four keys to well-being. Greater Good Magazine. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/the_four_keys_to_well_being. Retrieved May 24, 2022.
Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S., Urbanowski, F., Harrington, A., Bonus, K., & Sheridan, J. F. (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(4), 564–570. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3
Delaney, C., Barrere, C., Robertson, S., Zahourek, R., Diaz, D., & Lachapelle, L. (2016). Pilot testing of the NURSE stress management intervention. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 34(4), 369–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898010115622295
Diener, E., Emmons, R., Larsen, R., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Edwards, D. J., Edwards, S. D., Hopley, P., Kruger, P., & Goodwin, H. (2019). Brief report on a resilience workshop for professional rugby players. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 14(3), 684–689. https://doi.org/10.14198/jhse.2019.143
Fisher, D. M., Ragsdale, J. M., & Fisher, E. C. S. (2018). The importance of definitional and temporal issues in the study of resilience. Applied Psychology, 68(4), 583–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12162
Flett, J., Lie, C., Riordan, B., & Thompson, L. M. (2017). Sharpen your pencils: Preliminary evidence that adult coloring reduces depressive symptoms and anxiety. Creativity Research Journal, 29(4), 409–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2017.1376505
Greenbaum, C. A., & Javdani, S. (2017). Expressive writing intervention promotes resilience among juvenile justice-involved youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 73, 220–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.11.034
Heckenberg, R. A., Hale, M. W., Kent, S., & Wright, B. J. (2019). An online mindfulness-based program is effective in improving affect, over-commitment, optimism and mucosal immunity. Physiology and Behavior, 199, 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.11.001
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2013). Full catastrophe living. Bantam Dell Publishing Group.
Kavanaugh, M. S., Cho, C., Maeda, H., & Swope, C. (2017). “I am no longer alone”: Evaluation of the first North American camp for youth living in families with Huntington’s disease. Children and Youth Services Review, 79, 325–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.06.029
Kemper, K. J., & Khirallah, M. (2015). Acute effects of online mind–body skills training on resilience, mindfulness, and empathy. Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine, 20(4), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156587215575816
Keng, S. L., Smoski, M. J., Robins, C. J., Ekblad, A. G., & Brantley, J. G. (2012). Mechanisms of change in mindfulness-based stress reduction: Self-compassion and mindfulness as mediators of intervention outcomes. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 26(3), 270–280. https://doi.org/10.1891/0889-8391.26.3.270
Key, M. D., & Pigeon, A. M. (2013). Investigation of the relationship between resilience, mindfulness, and academic self-efficacy. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 1, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2013.16001
Leroi, I., Vatter, S., Carter, L. A., Smith, S. J., Orgeta, V., Poliakoff, E., Silverdale, M. A., Raw, J., Ahearn, D. J., Taylor, C., Rodda, J., Abdel-Ghany, T., & McCormick, S. A. (2019). Parkinson’s-adapted cognitive stimulation therapy: A pilot randomized controlled clinical trial. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders, 12, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1756286419852217
Manigault, A. W., Slutsky, R. J., & Creswell, J. D. (2021). Examining practice effects in a randomized controlled trial: Daily life mindfulness practice predicts stress buffering effects of mindfulness meditation training. Mindfulness, 12(10), 2487–2497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01718-1
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227
Neff, K. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
Nila, K., Holt, D. V., Ditzen, B., & Aguilar-Raab, C. (2016). Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) enhances distress tolerance and resilience through changes in mindfulness. Mental Health & Prevention, 4(1), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2016.01.001
O’Donohue, J., Mesagno, C., & O’Brien, B. (2019). How can stress resilience be monitored? A systematic review of measurement in humans. Current Psychology, 40(6), 2853–2876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00226-9
Romcevich, L. E., Reed, S., Flowers, S. R., Kemper, K. J., & Mahan, J. D. (2018). Mind-body skills training for resident wellness: A pilot study of a brief mindfulness intervention. Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development, 5, 2382120518773061. https://doi.org/10.1177/2382120518773061
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719–727. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 1063–1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063
Schroeder, D. A., Stephens, E., Colgan, D., Hunsinger, M., Rubin, D., & Christopher, M. S. (2018). A brief mindfulness-based intervention for primary care physicians: A pilot randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 12(1), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827616629121
Shahbaz, W., & Parker, J. (2021). Workplace mindfulness: An integrative review of antecedents, mediators, and moderators. Human Resource Management Review, 32(3), 100849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100849
Sharma, M., & Rush, S. E. (2014). Mindfulness-based stress reduction as a stress management intervention for healthy individuals: A systematic review. Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine, 19(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156587214543143
Sherbourne, C. D., & Stewart, A. L. (1991). The MOS social support survey. Social Science and Medicine, 32(6), 705–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(91)90150-B
Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The Brief Resilience Scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972
Tenhula, W. N., Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., Stewart, M. O., Miller, S. A., Steele, J., & Karlin, B. E. (2014). Moving forward: A problem-solving training program to foster veteran resilience. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 45(6), 416–424. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037150
Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1(2), 165–178.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Weis, K. L., Lederman, R. P., Walker, K. C., & Chan, W. (2017). Mentors offering maternal support reduces prenatal, pregnancy-specific anxiety in a sample of military women. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing, 46(5), 669–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jogn.2017.07.003
Yogapedia. (2017, July 27). What does sukha mean? https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/5597/sukha. Retrieved May 24, 2022.
Zautra, A. J., Guarnaccia, C. A., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1986). Measuring small life events. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(6), 629–655. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00931340
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. (1983). The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67, 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Appendix
Appendix
Brief Resilience Scale Instructions/Items, Scoring, and Interpretation
A. Instructions and Items – the following is the BRS as it usually appears in questionnaires.
Instructions: Use the following scale and circle one number for each statement to indicate how much you disagree or agree with each of the statements.
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree
1. I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times.
2. I have a hard time making it through stressful events.
3. It does not take me long to recover from a stressful event.
4. It is hard for me to snap back when something bad happens.
5. I usually come through difficult times with little trouble.
6. I tend to take a long time to get over setbacks in my life.
B. Scoring the BRS
Step 1: Reverse Coding – Reverse code the three negatively worded items (items 2, 4, and 6). For these items, this involves changing scores of 1 to 5, scores of 2 to 4, not changing scores of 3 but being sure to keep them in the analysis, scores of 4 to 2, and scores of 5 to 1.
Step 2: Calculating the Total Score – Take the sum or the mean of the scores on the six items resulting in a score from 6.00 to 30.00 for sums and from 1.00 to 5.00 for means. If there is missing data for any items, we recommend substituting the mean of the other items making it a positive number if the missing item is positively worded and a negative number if negatively worded. We also recommend using the mean as it has been most frequently used and easier to compare with other studies.
C. Interpreting the Scores of the BRS
The table shows the suggested cut-offs for different levels of resilience. The cut-offs were determined by examining the distributions of scores for 121 studies using the BRS from 2014 to 2019. After adjusting for the normally slight negative skew of the distribution of scores, the cut-offs were approximately 0.5 standard deviation from the mean for medium high and medium low resilience, 1.0 standard deviation for high and low resilience, and 2.0 standard deviations for very high and very low resilience. Please note that these ranges may vary or need to be adjusted depending on a variety of factors including age, gender, income, ethnicity, health, and the various stresses that may impact resilience over time.
Suggested Cut-offs for Different Levels of Resilience
Resilience Level. | Mean Range | Sum Range | Percentile Range (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
Very high | 4.67–5.00 | 28.00–30.00 | 97–100 |
High | 4.00–4.66 | 24.00–27.99 | 84–96 |
Medium high | 3.67–3.99 | 22.00–23.99 | 69–83 |
Medium | 3.17–3.66 | 19.00–21.99 | 32–68 |
Medium low | 2.67–3.16 | 16.00–18.99 | 17–31 |
Low | 1.83–2.66 | 11.00–15.99 | 4–16 |
Very low | 1.00–1.82 | 6.00–10.99 | 0–3 |
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Smith, B.W., deCruz-Dixon, N., Schodt, K., Torres, F. (2023). Brief Resilience Scale (BRS). In: Medvedev, O.N., Krägeloh, C.U., Siegert, R.J., Singh, N.N. (eds) Handbook of Assessment in Mindfulness Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_92-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_92-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-77644-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-77644-2
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Behavioral Science and PsychologyReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences