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From Student-Centered Pedagogy to Student Labor: Chinese Education’s Transnational Entanglements during the Cold War

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Cold War Social Science

Abstract

In socialist China’s first decade (1949–1958), Chinese pedagogy and its involvement with psychology underwent two transformations. First, in the early 1950s, Chinese educators replaced an American-influenced approach associated with John Dewey with a Soviet model that stressed human malleability. Second, in the late 1950s, Chinese educators explored a different model that focused on a combination of academic training and productive labor. The analysis reveals how these transformations rested on a transnational flow of ideas and local sociopolitical circumstances. Furthermore, this understanding of Chinese pedagogy’s engagements with psychology and its changing position within the competitive international arena raises questions about the use of the Cold War as a concept and periodic descriptor for understanding the history of the psychological and social sciences in the post–World War II era.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Zhipeng Gao, “Forging Marxist Psychology in China’s Cold War Geopolitics, 1949–1965,” History of Psychology 22, no. 4 (2019): 309–27.

  2. 2.

    Theodore Hsi-en Chen, Chinese Education since 1949: Academic and Revolutionary Models (New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1981).

  3. 3.

    Gao, “Forging Marxist Psychology.”

  4. 4.

    Yinghong Cheng, Creating the New Man: From Enlightenment Ideals to Socialist Realities (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2009); Donald J. Munro, “The Malleability of Man in Chinese Marxism,” The China Quarterly 48 (1971): 609–640.

  5. 5.

    Theodore Hsi-en Chen, “The New Socialist Man,” Comparative Education Review 13, no. 1 (1969): 88–95; Cheng, Creating the New Man.

  6. 6.

    Ivan Boldyrev and Olessia Kirtchik, “On (Im) Permeabilities: Social and Human Sciences on Both Sides of the ‘Iron Curtain,’” History of the Human Sciences 29, no. 4–5 (2016): 3–12; Zhipeng Gao, “Pavlovianism in China: Politics and Differentiation across Scientific Disciplines in the Maoist Era,” History of Science 53, no. 1 (2015): 57–85; Gao, “Forging Marxist Psychology in China’s Cold War Geopolitics, 1949–1965”; Zhipeng Gao, “From Empirical Observation to Social Intervention: The Marxization of Psychology in China, 1949–1958,” Review of General Psychology 24, no. 1 (2020), 43–59.

  7. 7.

    Nils Gilman, “The Cold War as Intellectual Force Field,” Modern Intellectual History 13, no. 2 (2016): 507–523.

  8. 8.

    Johan Heilbron, Nicolas Guilhot, and Laurent Jeanpierre, “Toward a Transnational History of the Social Sciences,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 44, no. 2 (2008): 146–60; Boldyrev and Kirtchik, “On (Im) Permeabilities”; Hunter Heyck and David Kaiser, “Focus: New Perspectives on Science and the Cold War—Introduction,” Isis 101, no. 2 (June 1, 2010): 362–66; Oreskes, “Introduction,” in Science and Technology in the Global Cold War, ed. Naomi Oreskes and John Krige (MIT Press, 2014).

  9. 9.

    Joel Isaac and Duncan Bell, “Introduction,” in Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War, ed. Joel Issac and Duncan Bell (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 3–16; Mark Solovey, “Cold War Social Science: Specter, Reality, or Useful Concept?,” in Cold War Social Science: Knowledge Production, Liberal Democracy, and Human Nature, ed. Mark Solovey and Hamilton Cravens (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 1–22.

  10. 10.

    Gilman, “The Cold War as Intellectual Force Field,” 514.

  11. 11.

    Gilman, 514.

  12. 12.

    Solovey, “Cold War Social Science,” 14.

  13. 13.

    David C. Engerman, “Social Science in the Cold War,” Isis 101, no. 2 (2010): 393–400; Joel Isaac, “The Human Sciences in Cold War America,” The Historical Journal 50, no. 3 (2007): 725–746; Solovey, “Cold War Social Science.”

  14. 14.

    Zhipeng Gao, “The Emergence of Modern Psychology in China, 1876–1929,” Annual Review of Critical Psychology (2013): 293–307.

  15. 15.

    Gao, “From Empirical Observation to Social Intervention.”

  16. 16.

    Yan Shuchang, Zhongguo Xiandai Xinlixue Shi: 1872–1949 [A History of Modern Psychology in China: 1872–1949] (Shanghai, China: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 2015).

  17. 17.

    Min Han and Yang Xiuwen, “Educational Assessment in China: Lessons from History and Future Prospects,” Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice 8, no. 1 (2001): 5–10.

  18. 18.

    Margaret Mih Tillman, Raising China’s Revolutionaries: Modernizing Childhood for Cosmopolitan Nationalists and Liberated Comrades, 1920s–1950s (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018).

  19. 19.

    M. Colette Plum, “Lost Childhoods in a New China: Child-Citizen-Workers at War, 1937—1945,” European Journal of East Asian Studies 11, no. 2 (2012): 237–258.

  20. 20.

    Zhipeng Gao, “Psychology,” in The Making of the Human Sciences in China, ed. Howard Chiang (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 283–302.

  21. 21.

    Gao, “Pavlovianism in China.”

  22. 22.

    Robert Chin and Ai-li. S Chin, Psychological Research in Communist China, 1949–1966 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1969); Robert Jay Lifton, Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of “Brainwashing” in China (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1961).

  23. 23.

    Teresa Brawner Bevis, A History of Higher Education Exchange: China and America (New York: Routledge, 2014).

  24. 24.

    “Live education” Investigation Team, “Qian Shanghai Shi Li Youzhi Shifan Xuexiao Diaocha Ji [Inspection Record on the Former Shanghai Municipal Normal Kindergarten School],” People’s Education 2 (1953): 22–25.

  25. 25.

    Zhang Tengxiao, “Ping ‘Liaojie Haizi Shi Zuo Ge Hao Xiansheng de Zhongyao Tiaojian’ [Commenting on ‘Understanding Children Is an Important Prerequisite for Being a Good Teacher’],” People’s Education 1 (1950): 53–56.

  26. 26.

    Zhang Tengxiao, “Yili Zai Canku Douzheng Zhong de Dingxian Dier Gaoji Xiaoxue [The Twentieth Senior Elementary School of Ding County Standing Firm in Harsh Struggle],” in Lao Jiefangqu Jiaoyu Ziliao Huibian [Collection of Educational Documents from Pre-Liberation Regions], ed. Jiaoyu kexue yanjiusuo choubeichu (Beijing, China: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 1947), 168–70.

  27. 27.

    Liu Ming, “A Tentative Study of Zhang Tengxiao and His Educational Thoughts,” Journal of Hebei Normal University (Educational Science Edition) 8, no. 3 (2006): 23–28.

  28. 28.

    Zhipeng Gao, “‘Gems Unwrought Can Form Nothing Useful’: Socialist China’s Pedagogical Erasure of Individuality, 1949–1958,” History of Education Online first (2020).

  29. 29.

    Stig Thøgersen, A County of Culture: Twentieth-Century China Seen from the Village Schools of Zouping, Shandong (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2002).

  30. 30.

    Peter Fritzsche and Jochen Hellbeck, “The New Man in Stalinist Russia and Nazi Germany,” in editor? Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 302–341.

  31. 31.

    Raymond A. Bauer, The New Man in Soviet Psychology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952).

  32. 32.

    Bauer, The New Man.

  33. 33.

    H. Arthur Steiner, “The Curriculum in Chinese Socialist Education: An Official Bibliography of ‘Maoism,’” Pacific Affairs 31, no. 3 (1958): 286–99.

  34. 34.

    Ivan Z. Holowinsky, “Ukraine’s Reconstructive Process in Education: School Reform, Teacher Education, and School Psychology,” in Teacher Education in Industrialized Nations, ed. Nobuo K. Shimahara and Ivan Z. Holowinsky (New York: Carland Publishing, 1995), 195–223.

  35. 35.

    E. Thomas Ewing, “Restoring Teachers to Their Rights: Soviet Education and the 1936 Denunciation of Pedology,” History of Education Quarterly 41, no. 4 (2001): 471–493.

  36. 36.

    Academic Affairs Office, BNU, “Yinyouer Yuan 1951 Nian Dier Xueqi Zongjie Baogao [Report on the Kindergarten in the Second Semester of 1951],” 1951, 19, Academic Affairs Office, Beijing Normal University Archive, as cited in Gao, “The Mind of the New Socialist Student in the Chinese Revolutionary Imagination, 1949–1958,” 80.

  37. 37.

    Mao Zedong and Nick Knight, Mao Zedong on Dialectical Materialism: Writings on Philosophy, 1937 (London, UK: M.E. Sharpe, 1990).

  38. 38.

    F. Y. K. Soo, Mao Tse-Tung’s Theory of Dialectic (London, UK: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1983).

  39. 39.

    Mao Tse-tung, “On Dialectical Materialism a Fragment,” Studies in Soviet Thought 3, no. 4 (December 1, 1963): 270–77.

  40. 40.

    Psychology Teaching and Research Unit, Kaifeng Teachers’ College, Xinlixue Jiangyi [Psychology Course Materials] (Wuhan, China: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1958), 6; Zhenhua Yang, Xinlixue Tongsu Jianghua [Psychology in Easy Language] (Wuhan, China: Hubei People’s Press, 1958), 6.

  41. 41.

    Ni Zhongfang, “Huasheng Xingwei Zhuyi Xinlixue de Chubu Pipan [A Preliminary Critique of the Behaviorism of Watson],” Acta Psychologica Sinica 1, no. 2 (1957): 194–200.

  42. 42.

    Zhang Fucai, “Pipan ‘Xiangxiang’ Yi Zhang Zhong de Zichan Jieji Fandong Guandian [Critique of the Capitalist Reactionary Ideas in the Chapter ‘Emotion’],” in Xinlixue Pipan Ji [Collection of Critiques of Psychology], ed. Teaching and Research Unit of Psychology, BNU, vol. 1, 2 vols. (Beijing, China: Gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe, 1958), 85–94.

  43. 43.

    Xu Peifang, “Wo Zenyang Jiao ‘Geming Gushi Duben’ de [How I Taught ‘Reading on Stories of Revolution,’” ed. Cai Junqi, People’s Education 8 (1950): 55–56.

  44. 44.

    Chen Guomei, “Bixu Chedi Suqing Xinlixue Jiaoxue Zhong Sanbu de Dusu! [Must Completely Eradicate the Poison in the Teaching of Psychology!],” in Xinlixue Pipan Ji [Collection of Critiques of Psychology], ed. Teaching and Research Unit of Psychology, BNU, vol. 1 (Beijing, China: Gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe, 1958), 14.

  45. 45.

    Jamie Cohen-Cole, The Open Mind: Cold War Politics and the Sciences of Human Nature (Chicago,: University of Chicago Press, 2014).

  46. 46.

    Shen Zhihua, Reflections and Choices: The Consciousness of the Chinese Intellectuals and the Anti-Rightist Campaign (1956–1957), vol. 3, 10 vols., The History of the People’s Republic of China (Hong Kong: Research Center for Contemporary Chinese Culture, 2009).

  47. 47.

    Barry Naughton, The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth (Cambridge, MA: MIT press, 2007).

  48. 48.

    Nicholas R. Lardy, “Economic Recovery and the 1st Five-Year Plan,” in The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 14: The People’s Republic, Part 1: The Emergence of Revolutionary China, 1949–1965, ed. John King Fairbank and Roderick MacFarquhar (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 144–184.

  49. 49.

    School Committee in the Youth League Worker Association of the Southwestern Region, “Guanyu Muqian Xinan Xuesheng Shehui Huodong Guoduo, Gongzuo Fudan Guozhong de Qingkuang [Regarding Facts about the Excessive Social Activities and Overload among Students in the Southwestern Region],” People’s Education 4 (1953): 61; 66.

  50. 50.

    Zhipeng Gao, “The Mind of the New Socialist Student in the Chinese Revolutionary Imagination, 1949–1958” (PhD Dissertation, York University, 2018).

  51. 51.

    Chinese Language Unit, BNU, “Shida Shixun Ban Guowen Zu Shixi Gongzuo Zongjie [Summary of the Internship of the Chinese Language Teacher Training Class at Beijing Normal University],” June 14, 1951, 13, Academic Affairs Office, Beijing Normal University Archive, as cited in Gao, “The Mind of the New Socialist Student in the Chinese Revolutionary Imagination, 1949–1958,” 95.

  52. 52.

    Liu Yu, “Jieshao Xiaoxue Keben Yuwen Di Yi Ce Xingshi Fangmian de Wuge Tedian [Introduction to the Five Features of the First Volume of the Chinese Language Textbook for Elementary School],” People’s Education 9 (1952): 39–42.

  53. 53.

    Xiao Yin, “‘Tantan Xiaoxue Keben Yuwen Diyice de Xixiang Neirong He Jiaoxue Yaoqiu’ Yiwen de Duhougan [Opinions on ‘Discussion on the Ideological Content and Pedagogical Requirements of the First Volume of the Chinese Language Textbook for Elementary School’],” People’s Education 9 (1952): 47.

  54. 54.

    Liu Yu, “Tantan Chuxiao Guoyu Jiaokeshu Zhong de Laodong Guandian [Comments on Ideas about Labor in Elementary Chinese Language Textbook],” in Xiaoxue de Sixiang Zhengzhi Jiaoyu [Ideological and Political Education in Elementary School] (Beijing, China: Xinhua shudian, 1950), 95–105.

  55. 55.

    Wu Yanyin, “Ge Diqu Dui Xiaoxue Shiyong Keben Yuwen Di Yi Ce de Piping Jianyi [Various Regions’ Critical Suggestions on the First Volume of the Chinese Language Textbook for Elementary School],” People’s Education 11 (1953): 54–58.

  56. 56.

    Cheng, Creating the New Man.

  57. 57.

    Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935–1941 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

  58. 58.

    Urie Bronfenbrenner, “Soviet Methods of Character Education: Some Implications for Research,” Religious Education 57, no. 4 (1962): 45–61.

  59. 59.

    Ibid.

  60. 60.

    Zeng Shaolun, “Shishi Jiaoshi Gognzuoliang Zhidu Shi Jinyibu Gaige Gaodeng Jiaoyu de Zhongyao Guanjian [The Enactment of Teachers’ Workload Regulation Is the Key in Furthering the Reform of Higher Education],” 1954, 3, Academic Affairs Office, Beijing Normal University Archive, as cited in Gao, “The Mind of the New Socialist Student in the Chinese Revolutionary Imagination, 1949–1958,” 194.

  61. 61.

    Academic Affairs Office, BNU, “Beijing Shifan Daxue Fushu Zhongxue 1952 Niandu Dier Xueqi Gongzuo Zongjie [Work Summary of the Secondary School Affiliated with Beijing Normal University in the Second Semester of the 1952 Academic Year],” 1953, 56, Academic Affairs Office, Beijing Normal University Archive, as cited in Gao, “The Mind of the New Socialist Student in the Chinese Revolutionary Imagination, 1949–1958,” 195.

  62. 62.

    Work Committee of the Youth League, Department of Education of Hunan Province, “Hunansheng Zhongdeng Xuexiao Kewai Shehui Huodong Guoduo, Yingxiang Xuesheng Xuexi He Jiankang de Qingkuang [Facts about the Excessive Amount of Extra-School Activities in Middle Schools in Hunan Province That Have Negative Impact on Students’ Study and Health],” People’s Education 4 (1953): 59–60.

  63. 63.

    Meng Qingchen, “Buneng Yi Gao Yundong Lai Tigao Jiaoyu Zhiliang [Cannot Improve the Quality of Education through Campaigning],” People’s Education 11 (1956): 56.

  64. 64.

    Ministry of Education & Committee of National Union of Education, “Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Jiaoyubu, Zhongguo Jiaoyu Gonghui Quanguo Weiyuanhui Guanyu Zai Zhong, Xiaoxue He Shifan Xuexiao Kaizhan Xianjin Gongzuozhe Yundong Wenti de Lianhe Tongzhi [United Notice from Ministry of Education and Committee of National Union of Education on the Promotion of Role Model Workers Campaigns in Secondary and Elementary Schools and Normal Institutions],” in Jiaoyu Faling Huibian, 1956 [Selected Collection of Educational Documents, 1956], ed. Office of Ministry of Education (Beijing, China: Office of Ministry of Education, 1956), 343–44.

  65. 65.

    Douglas Stiffler, “‘Three Blows of the Shoulder Pole’: Soviet Experts at Chinese People’s University, 1950–1957,” in China Learns from the Soviet Union, ed. Thomas P Bernstein and Hua-yu Li (New York: Lexington Books, 2010), 303–326.

  66. 66.

    Izabella Goikhman, “Soviet-Chinese Academic Interactions in the 1950s: Questioning the ‘Impact-Response’ Approach,” in Bernstein and Li, ed., China Learns, 275–302.

  67. 67.

    Zhang Lingguang, “Cong Xianzai Jiaoyu Lilun Shang Mouxie Pianmianxing Tan Dao ‘Quanmian Fazhan, Yincai Shijiao’ de Fangzhen de Biyao Xing [On the Necessity of the Principle ‘All-Round Development, Teaching in Accordance with Student’s Aptitude’ in Relation to Certain One-Sided Aspects of Educational Theories],” People’s Education 10 (1956): 12–15.

  68. 68.

    Gao, “Gems Unwrought Can Form Nothing Useful.”

  69. 69.

    Gao, “Forging Marxist Psychology in China’s Cold War Geopolitics, 1949–1965.”

  70. 70.

    Ibid.

  71. 71.

    Teaching and Research Unit of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Xinlixue[Psychology] (Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University Press, 1956).

  72. 72.

    Group for Criticizing Psychology from the Third and Fourth Year of Pre-School Education Major, BNU, “Pipan Xueqian Ertong Xinlixue Jiaoxue Zhong de Zichan Jieji Fangxiang [Critique of the Capitalist Direction in the Teaching of Pre-School Child Psychology],” in Xinlixue Pipan Ji [Collection of Critiques of Psychology], ed. Teaching and Research Unit of Psychology, BNU, vol. 2, 2 vols. (Beijing, China: Gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe, 1958), 44–55.

  73. 73.

    Ding Yizhuang, Zhongguo Zhiqing Shi: Chulan, 1953–1968 [A History of the Chinese Educated Youth: The Early Waves, 1953–1968] (Beijing, China: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Press, 1998).

  74. 74.

    Ronald A Manzer, Educational Regimes and Anglo-American Democracy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003).

  75. 75.

    Ding, Zhongguo Zhiqing Shi.

  76. 76.

    Roderick MacFarquhar, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, Vol. 1, Contradictions among the People 1956–57 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974).

  77. 77.

    Lee S. Zhu, “Communist Cadres on the Higher Education Front, 1955–1962,” Twentieth-Century China 34, no. 1 (2008): 73–95.

  78. 78.

    Wang Bingzhao, Wang Bingzhao Koushu Shi [Oral History by Wang Bingzhao] (Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University Press, 2010).

  79. 79.

    Chen, Chinese Education since 1949.

  80. 80.

    Shen Zhihua and Xia Yafeng, Mao and the Sino–Soviet Partnership, 1945–1959: A New History (London, UK: Lexington Books, 2015).

  81. 81.

    The Fifty-Fourth Middle School of Shanghai, “Yige Xinxing de Xiao Liangangchang [A New Kind of Small Steelmaking Factory],” in Qingshaonian Zai Laodongzhe de Hongqi Xia Qianjin [Teenagers and Youths Marching Forward under the Red Flag of Workers], ed. Shanghai Exhibition of Integrating Education and Productive Labor (Shanghai, China: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1958), 5.

  82. 82.

    Chi Liaozhou, “‘Xiangxiang Shangshan’ de Shenke Geming Yiyi [The Profound Meaning of ‘down to the Countryside and up to the Mountain,’” People’s Daily, November 25, 1957.

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  1. Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada

    Zhipeng Gao

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  2. Science, Technology and Society Unit, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria

    Christian Dayé

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Gao, Z. (2021). From Student-Centered Pedagogy to Student Labor: Chinese Education’s Transnational Entanglements during the Cold War. In: Solovey, M., Dayé, C. (eds) Cold War Social Science. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70246-5_9

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