The Role of Nature in the Secularization of Criminal Law in Europe (17th–19th Centuries)

Masferrer, Aniceto

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-64163-4_5

Aniceto Masferrer²⁶

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 84))

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Abstract

Some authors have argued that enlightenment authors endorsed a social contract that was not compatible with the existence of laws of nature or a moral foundation for criminal law, while nineteenth-century liberal criminal lawyers founded criminal law upon a natural law theory, based on divine commands. This chapter demonstrates on the contrary that enlightenment authors did not necessarily make a sharp distinction between morality and criminal law, nor did 19th-century criminal lawyers adopted a conception of criminal law that was too heavily dependent on morality, as it was defended by medieval and early-modern-age scholars. The traditional dichotomy between enlightened thinkers and traditional criminal lawyers does not apply well to nineteenth-century Spain and France.

This work was undertaken in the context of the research project entitled “Las influencias extranjeras en la Codificación penal española: su concreto alcance en la Parte Especial de los Códigos decimonónicos” (ref. DER2016-78,388-P), financed by the Spanish ‘Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad.'

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Notes

1.
Silva Forné (2001), 292; all translations are mine, unless otherwise indicated.
2.
Kant (1797); see also, Murphy (1952, 1979); for a comparative between Thomas of Aquinas and Kant’s retributive theory of punishment, see Koritansky (2005), 319–338.
3.
Silva Forné (2001), 293.
4.
Virto Larruscain (1984), 67; see also Cardenal Murillo (1990), 46–47.
5.
On Gaetano Filangieri and his supposed influence in Spain, see Antón Oneca (1965a, b), 271; Sánchez Osés (1966), 413–438; Galindo Ayuda (1991), 388–395; other authors maintain the opposite view, namely, Sainz Cantero (1967), 512–513; Lalinde Abadía (1991), 453–506; Sanchez Blanco (1991); Baró Pazos (1991), 1–40, particularly 25–26; Sánchez González (2007), 70; Lorente Sariñena (2007); Astigarraga (2007).
6.
Filangieri (1822); Filangieri (1821), 65.
7.
Iñesta-Pastor (2011), 264.
8.
Iñesta-Pastor (2011), 266.
9.
Ferrajoli (1997), 229; for the English version, Ferrajoli (2018).
10.
See Footnote 6.
11.
On the contribution of the codification movement towards the criminal law development that might be synthesized in three aspects—systematization, humanization and secularization—, see Masferrer (2009, 2010).
12.
On the use of ‘human nature’ as the foundation of ‘human dignity’, see Masferrer (2016).
13.
Let me give an example. It is well known that Bentham was the first to argue for the decriminalization of the crime of sodomy at the end of the eighteenth century. However, such claim was not common in the end of the eighteenth century or in the first middle of the nineteenth century. In fact, many European criminal codes continued to persecute and punish this behaviour during the twentieth century. The reason for this was, mainly, the role of nature, since it was thought that such behaviour was somehow against nature and should be prevented for a variety of reasons (including medical, health or other reasons related to hygiene, the preservation of health, and the prevention of illness).
14.
Masferrer (2017), 735 ff.
15.
The notion of natural reason was already present in Stoicism which clearly influenced some Roman lawyers; on this matter, see Watson (1971); Vander Waerdt (1994); in Thomas of Aquinas’ thought this notion was central and 16th-century Spanish Scholasticism followed the same path; as will be seen, non-Catholic lawyers and political philosophers used it as well, although its meaning and role varied.
16.
As it is well known, after the Second World War Kant’s doctrine witnessed a revival and contributed to the “glorification of autonomy,” as Fletcher (1984, 171) pointed out.
17.
Hobbes (1839–1845b).
18.
Hobbes 1839–1845c).
19.
Hobbes (1839–1845d).
20.
Hobbes (1839–1845e).
21.
Hobbes (1839–1845f).
22.
Hobbes (1839–1845g): “Since you have told me how heresy came to be a name, tell me also how it came to be a crime; and what were the heresies that first were made crimes.”
23.
Hobbes (1839–1845h).
24.
Hobbes (1839–1845i).
25.
Hobbes (1839–1845j).
26.
In this regard, it is revealing to read what he thought about the role of passions in committing a crime; see Hobbes (1839–1845k).
27.
For a complete account of the relation between natural law and social in Samuel von Pufendorf, see his De Jure naturæ et gentium (1672).
28.
Pufendorf (2003), Chapter VI: Of the Duty of One Man to Another, and First of Doing No Injury to Any Man, I. Reciprocal Duties of two Sorts; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#lf0217_label_261.
29.
Pufendorf (2003), Chaps. IV, II. No wrong to be done. L.N.N.l.3.c.1; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#lf0217_label_262.
30.
Pufendorf (2003), Chaps. IV, III; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#lf0217_label_263.
31.
Pufendorf (2003), Chaps. IV, V. Damage how to be accounted. L. N. N. l. 3. c. 1. §3; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#lf0217_label_265.
32.
Pufendorf (2003), Chaps. IV, XIII. Recapitulation; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#lf0217_label_273.
33.
Pufendorf (2003), Chap. XIII: Of the power of life and death, XI. Internal Acts of the Mind, not subject to them. L. N. N. l. 8. c. 3. §14; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#lf0217_label_734.
34.
Pufendorf (1672), Book VII, Chap. ix, §4.
35.
Pufendorf (2003), The Judgment of an Anonymous Writer on the Original of This Abridgment With reflections of the translator, intended to clarify certain of the author’s principles: X. disposed man will sin not least by failing to do what he should do. So it is dangerous, or at best unrealistic, for our author to imagine a corrupt heart, the external actions of which are entirely innocent; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#Pufendorf_0217_654.
36.
Pufendorf (2003), Chap. XIV: Of Reputation, VIII. Lost by an ill Condition of Life, L. N. N. l. 8. c. 4. §7; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#lf0217_label_760.
37.
Pufendorf (2003), Chap. XIV: Of Reputation, IX. And his Crimes; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/888#lf0217_label_761.
38.
Locke (1824), vol. 1; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/761#Locke_0128-01_706), Chap. XXVIII: Of Other Relations, ‘Laws’, §7; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/761#Locke_0128-01_706.
39.
Locke (1824), Chap. XXVIII: Of Other Relations, Laws, ‘Divine law, the measure of sin and duty’: §8; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/761#Locke_0128-01_707.
40.
Locke (1824), Chap. XXVIII: Of Other Relations, Laws, ‘Civil law, the measure of crimes and innocence’: §9; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/761#Locke_0128-01_708.
41.
Locke (1824), Chap. XXVIII: Of Other Relations, Laws, ‘Philosophical law, the measure of virtue and vice’: §10; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/761#Locke_0128-01_709.
42.
Locke (1824), Chap. XXVIII: Of Other Relations, Laws, ‘Philosophical law, the measure of virtue and vice’: §10; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/761#Locke_0128-01_709.
43.
Locke (1764).
44.
As I defended in my paper “The Role of Nature in the 18th-century criminal law discourse: A Critical and Comparative Analysis”, I delivered at the British Legal History Conference 2017, entitled ‘Networks and Connections’, held at the University College London (London), 5–8 July (5 July), 3:45 pm–5:15 pm.
45.
See, for example, Cartuyvels (1994, 1996, 1997).
46.
Cartuyvels (1994), 377 ff.
47.
Cartuyvels (1994), 377, Footnote 14, citing Christian Wolf, 1758, Chap. 1, XXIV.
48.
Cartuyvels (1994), 378, Footnote 16, citing Domat, 1777, t. I, Chap. XI, Art. 20, and t. II, preface.
49.
Cartuyvels (1994), 383–385.
50.
On this matter, see Hermann (1984).
51.
Cartuyvels (1994), 383, citing Joseph, II, 1791, t. I, 6.
52.
Masferrer (2009).
53.
Sellert (1983); Masferrer (2009), 136–138.
54.
Clavero (1990), 66–67.
55.
England maintained the death penalty for those convicted for committing the crime of sodomy until 1861, year in which this punishment—established by Henry VIII through the ‘Buggery Act’ (1533)—was replaced by prison and forced labor.
56.
Nye (1998), 107.
57.
Rublack (2002), 213–214.
58.
Rublack (2002), 200.
59.
Other conducts which had been tolerated in the early modern age continued to be so. A clear example of it is the prostitution, as scholars have shown; see, for example, Bullough (1985), 61.
60.
Bentham (2002), 19: “…estos crímenes parecen haber sido perseguidos en la Europa de las Luces con más saña y dedicación que nunca.”
61.
Bentham (1785); I use the Spanish version, already cited in the Footnote 60.
62.
Bentham (2002), 20–22.
63.
Bentham (2002), 21–22.
64.
Gunther (2009), 10–11.
65.
Gunther (2009), 13–14.
66.
See H-France Review Vol. 12, January 2012, No. 5.
67.
Montesquieu (1777a).
68.
Montesquieu (1777b).
69.
Montesquieu (1777c).
70.
Montesquieu (1777d).
71.
Montesquieu (1777d).
72.
Montesquieu (1777e).
73.
See Footnote 158.
74.
Montesquieu (1777f).
75.
Montesquieu (1948), L. 12, cap. 6; on this matter, see also Vázquez García and Moreno Mengíbar (1997), 224–225.
76.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER XXXIX: OF A PARTICULAR KIND OF CRIMES; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202770/3339536.
77.
Ibid.
78.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER XXXI: OF CRIMES OF DIFFICULT PROOF; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202754/3339482.
79.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER XXXI: OF CRIMES OF DIFFICULT PROOF; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202754/3339483.
80.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER XXXI: OF CRIMES OF DIFFICULT PROOF; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202754/3339486.
81.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER XXXI: OF CRIMES OF DIFFICULT PROOF; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202754/3339484.
82.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER XXXI: OF CRIMES OF DIFFICULT PROOF; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202754/3339488.
83.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER V: OF PROFANATION; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202797/3339611.
84.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER V: OF PROFANATION; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202797/3339612.
85.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER VII: OF ESTIMATING THE DEGREE OF CRIMES; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202706/3339309.
86.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER VII: OF ESTIMATING THE DEGREE OF CRIMES; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202706/3339307.
87.
Rousseau (1901), Chapter: Of Their Slaves, and of Their Marriages; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2039/145528/2721199.
88.
Rousseau (1901), CHAPTER V: the right of life and death; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/638/71007/1686978.
89.
See Footnotes 170 and 171.
90.
Voltaire (1901), vol. III, Chapter: BLASPHEMY; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/352/53884/633265.
91.
Ibid.
92.
Voltaire (1901), vol. III. Chapter: ADULTERY; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/352/53693/631586.
93.
Voltaire (1901), vol. VII. Chapter: TAX—FEE; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1660/202435/3331973.
94.
Kant (1887), Chapter: Constitutional and Juridical Consequences arising from the Nature of the Civil Union; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/359/55842/641046; the passage cited stems from “explanatory remarks on the first principles of the doctrine of sex crimes,” an appendix added to a new printing (also 1797) in response to a review. It stems from one of his last works, known in English as The Metaphysics of Morals. Published in 1797, when the philosopher’s mental powers had ebbed, the book is generally regarded as a compilation of lecture notes. On this basis, the material would have been developed some years earlier.
95.
Note that for Kant, and for Germans today, the term pæderasty or Päderastie does not refer to pedophilia, but to anal penetration. As such, it could in principle refer to heterosexual behavior, but as this was little noticed at the time, the primary reference is to men having sex with men in this manner.
96.
Kant (1887), Chapter: Objection as to the Faculty of Desire; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/359/55891/641172.
97.
Ibid.
98.
Kant (1886), Chapter: PART I: OF THE DUTIES OF PERFECT AND DETERMINATE OBLIGATION; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1443/56276/1351965.
99.
Kant (1886), Chapter: PART I: OF THE DUTIES OF PERFECT AND DETERMINATE OBLIGATION; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1443/56276/1351966; as can be seen, Kant did not adopt religious terminology.
100.
Blackstone (1893), CHAPTER XIX: OF COURTS OF A CRIMINAL JURISDICTION; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2142/198923/3154159.
101.
Blackstone (1893), CHAPTER IV: OF OFFENCES AGAINST GOD AND RELIGION; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2142/198893/3153824.
102.
Blackstone (1893), Chapter: BARRON FIELD, AN ANALYSIS OF BLACKSTONE’S COMMENTARIES ON The Laws of England; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2142/198964/3156831.
103.
Bentham (1838–1843a).
104.
See Footnotes 147 and 148; on this matter, see Bentham (2002), 37–42.
105.
Bentham (2002), 40.
106.
Bentham (1838–1843b).
107.
Bentham (1907), Chapter: §3. Genera of Class I; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/278/20765/941632.
108.
Bentham (1838–1843c).
109.
Lardizábal (1782).
110.
See Footnote 28, and its main text.
111.
Lardizábal (1782), 94–99; see also Tomás y Valiente (1969), 235.
112.
On this matter, see Footnotes 147, 148, 149, 150, and their main texts.
113.
From a legislative perspective, Pietro Leopoldo of Tuscany was the first who abolished death penalty for all crimes (1786), becoming not only the first Western ruler to do so, but also the first ruler to abolish death penalty for sodomy (which was replaced by prison and hard labor).
114.
See, for example, the case of Valencia, in Tomás y Valiente (1990), 54.
115.
See Footnote 164 and its main text.
116.
Bentham (2002), 30.
117.
Cesare Bonesana di Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER XXXIX: OF A PARTICULAR KIND OF CRIMES; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202770/3339536.
118.
Ibid.
119.
Beccaria (1872), CHAPTER XXXI: OF CRIMES OF DIFFICULT PROOF; available at https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2193/202754/3339484.
120.
Hélie (1863), LXVII and LXVIII; the text can also be found in Silva Forné (2001), 294, Footnote 260.
121.
See, for example, Marín y Mendoza (1776, 1999).
122.
See, for example, Mendizábal Martín (1897, 1897–1899).
123.
DSC, Congreso, 11 de marzo de 1848, p. 1734.
124.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 77, n. 35.
125.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 77, n. 38.
126.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 149–150.
127.
Vizmanos and Álvarez Martínez (1848), t. I, 181.
128.
Vizmanos and Álvarez Martínez (1848), t. I, 160–161.
129.
Vicente Almazán (1852), t. II, 169.
130.
Bérenger (1855).
131.
Garraud (1881, 1888–1894, 1898–1902, 1907–1929); on René Garraud, see Halpérin (2006).
132.
Filangieri (1821).
133.
Röder (1846, 1855, 1864, 1867, 1875, 1876).
134.
On the eclecticism in the 19th-century Spain, see Iñesta-Pastor (2011), 262–290; in Spain, the eclecticism’s doctrine dominated during the whole nineteenth century, and its influence can be also seen in the 1870 Spanish criminal code; on this issue, see Silvela (1903), 172; Castejón (1970), 63; Groizard (1870), 79–88, 254–255; Iñesta-Pastor (2016), 225–226.
135.
Ancel (1965; reprinted 1998).
136.
On Rossi’s influence upon Spanish criminal doctrine and criminal law, see Iñesta-Pastor (2016), 212–214; Iñesta-Pastor (2011), 262–290; Iñesta-Pastor (2018), 249–250.
137.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 13.
138.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 14.
139.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 15.
140.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 15.
141.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 16.
142.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 17.
143.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 17–18.
144.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 18.
145.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 18–19.
146.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 19.
147.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 19.
148.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 20.
149.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 20.
150.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 20.
151.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 20.
152.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 20–21.
153.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 21.
154.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 21.
155.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 21.
156.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 21.
157.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 210.
158.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 211.
159.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 210.
160.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 211.
161.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 219.
162.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 221.
163.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 220–221.
164.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 221.
165.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 299.
166.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 299.
167.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 299.
168.
Rossi (1839), vol. I, 336–337.
169.
Tissot (1880), Introduction, VIII.
170.
Ortolán (1845), 14–18.
171.
Ortolán (1845), 18.
172.
Ortolán (1845), 21–22.
173.
Ortolán (1845), 22–24.
174.
Ortolán (1845), 21.
175.
Ortolán (1845), 21.
176.
Ortolán (1845), 75–76; concerning the “distinción entre la moral, el derecho natural y el derecho positivo’, see pp. 75–76.
177.
Ortolán (1878), vol. I, 23–25.
178.
Ortolán (1878), vol. I, 23.
179.
Ortolán (1878), vol. I, 23.
180.
Ortolán (1878), vol. I, 84.
181.
Ortolán (1878), vol. I, 85.
182.
Proal (1893); see Footnotes 12 and 55; his main work La criminalité politique (1895) was translated into English in 1898, becoming a well-known book in Anglo-American jurisdictions; on this matter, see Schafer (1971).
183.
Proal (1893), 6.
184.
Proal (1893), 6.
185.
Proal (1893), 10.
186.
Darwin, La descendencia del hombre, 3rd ed., p. 128; cited by Proal (1893), 10.
187.
Proal (1893), 10.
188.
Letourneau, Charles, La evolución de la moral, p. 68, 174; cited by Proal (1893), 10.
189.
Proal (1893), 11.
190.
Donde cita a Letourneau, La Evolución de la moral, p. 460 (I use the following edition: Letourneau C (¿?) Génesis y evolución de la moral, Publicaciones de La Escuela Moderna, Barcelona.
191.
Proal (1893), 11.
192.
Proal (1893), 12.
193.
Proal (1893), 12.
194.
Gómez de la Serna (1865); Díez del Corral (1956); Acedo Castilla (1996); Baró Pazos (2006), vol. 2, t. 1, n. 732, 256.
195.
Romero Girón (1886); Revuelta Benito (1945); Cuello Calón (1948); Jiménez de Asúa (1951); Antón Oneca (1965a, b); Calvo Rubio (1966); Tomás y Valiente (1994); Iñesta-Pastor (2016), 215–219.
196.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 77, n. 35.
197.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 77, n. 38.
198.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 149–150.
199.
Morillas Cueva (1978), 82–83; recogido por Iñesta-Pastor (2016), 217, nota el pie n. 50.
200.
See, for example, Iñesta-Pastor (2016), 217, Footnote 47 and 48 (where some references can be found, e.g. Antón Oneca (1965a), 480; Tomás y Valiente (1994), 39, 65.
201.
Pacheco (1842), vol. I, 42.
202.
Pacheco (1842), vol. I, 71–72.
203.
Pacheco (1842), vol. I, 90.
204.
Pacheco (1842), vol. I, 90.
205.
Pacheco (1842), vol. I, 91.
206.
Pacheco (1842), vol. I, 92.
207.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 98.
208.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 99.
209.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 149.
210.
Pacheco (1856), vol. I, 149–150.
211.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XI–XII.
212.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XI–XIII.
213.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XIII.
214.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XIII.
215.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XIII.
216.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XIII–XIV.
217.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XIV.
218.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XIV.
219.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, Introduction, XIV.
220.
Art. 1 CP 1848; art. 1 CP 1850; art. 1 CP 1870; see Masferrer and Ramos Vázquez (2017), 193–201.
221.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 76, n. 32.
222.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 76, n. 33.
223.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 76, n. 33.
224.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 76–77, n. 34.
225.
A este respecto, véase Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 77–79.
226.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 77, n. 35.
227.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 77, n. 36.
228.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 77, n. 36.
229.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 77, n. 37.
230.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 77, n. 38.
231.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 77–78, n. 39.
232.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 78, n. 40.
233.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 78, n. 40.
234.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 78, n. 41.
235.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 78, n. 41.
236.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 79, n. 42.
237.
Pacheco (1888), vol. I, 78–79, n. 42.
238.
Pacheco (1888), vol. II, 6, n. 4.
239.
Pacheco (1888), vol. II, 6, nn. 6–7.
240.
From a legislative perspective, Pietro Leopoldo of Tuscany was the first who abolished death penalty for all crimes (1786), becoming not only the first Western ruler to do so, but also the first ruler to abolish death penalty for sodomy (which was replaced by prison and hard labor).
241.
See, for example, the case of Valencia, in Tomás y Valiente (1990), 54.
242.
See Footnote 76 and its main text.

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Masferrer, A. (2020). The Role of Nature in the Secularization of Criminal Law in Europe (17th–19th Centuries). In: Masferrer, A. (eds) Criminal Law and Morality in the Age of Consent. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 84. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64163-4_5

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