Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Surface Water Salinity of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Shatt al-Arab Rivers

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers: Their Environment from Headwaters to Mouth

Part of the book series: Aquatic Ecology Series ((AQEC,volume 11))

  • 1150 Accesses

Abstract

Increasing salinity is a problem in many major river systems worldwide, especially in arid areas. The Euphrates, Tigris, and Shatt al-Arab river system is suffering from significant increases in salinity, especially in the lower reaches. Salinity increases coincide with the construction of dams on the upstream parts of the rivers. Salinities higher than 5000 ppm were recorded in the lower parts of the river system. The Shatt al-Arab is formed by the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in southern Iraq. The salinity problem in the Shatt al-Arab is more severe than that in the two upstream rivers. Salinity values as high as half seawater salinity were observed in the Basra (Maqal) station in 2009. This chapter evaluates the salinity problem of the system composed of the three water courses. The salinity evolution, causes, and distribution are presented analytically. At the end of the chapter, salinity management and potential control options are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abdullah SS (2014) Tide phenomena in the Shatt Al-Arab River, south of Iraq. J Arabian Gulf 42(3&4):133–155

    Google Scholar 

  • Abdullah AD, Gisen JIA, van der Zaag P, Savenije HHG, Karim UFA, Masih I, Popescu I (2016) Predicting the salt water intrusion in the Shatt al-Arab estuary using an analytical approach. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 20:4031–4042. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-4031-2016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Ansari N, Ali A, Knutsson S (2014) Present conditions and future challenges of water resources problems in Iraq. J Water Res Pr 6(12):1066–1098. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2014.612102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Gburi H, Al-Tawash B, Al-Lafta H (2017) Environmental assessment of Al-Hammar marsh, southern Iraq. Heliyon 3:1–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Hadithi AH (1978) Optimal utilization of the water resources of the Euphrates River in Iraq. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Arizona

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali M, Salewicz KA (2005) Study on the salinity of Euphrates–Tigris Rivers, Iraq-model development status. Third expert meeting on Euphrates/Tigris River basin management. Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, the University of Tokyo

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Layla MA (1978) Effects of salinity on agriculture in Iraq, J. of the irrigation and drainage division. Am Soc Civil Eng 104(2):195–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Mahmood HK (2015) Hydrological changes in the lower part of Mesopotamian Basin. Iraq J Aquacult 12(1):47–70

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Saady YI, Abdullah EJ (2014) Water quality of Tigris River within Missan governorate eastern part of the Mesopotamia plain – Iraq, journal of Babylon university. Pure Appl Sci 9(22):2489–2502

    Google Scholar 

  • Altinbilek D (2004) Development and management of the Euphrates–Tigris basin. Int J Water Resour Dev 20(1):15–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900620310001635584

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basin Salinity Management 2030, (BSM2030) (2015) Published by the Murray–Darling Basin Ministerial Council, https://www.mdba.gov.au/sites/default/files/pubs/D16-34851-basin_salinity_management_strategy_BSM2030.pdf. Accessed 10 March 2016

  • Beaumont P (1996) Agricultural and environmental changes in the upper Euphrates catchment of Turkey and Syria and their political and economic implications. Appl Geogr 16(2):137–157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilen O (1997) Turkey and water issues in the Middle East. Southern Anatolia Project (GAP). Regional Development Administration. Ankara, Turkey

    Google Scholar 

  • Buringh P (1960) Soils and soils conditions of Iraq. The Ministry of Agriculture, Baghdad

    Google Scholar 

  • CASS (Central Arizona Salinity Study) (2003) Phase 1, report, technical appendix, p 309

    Google Scholar 

  • CEB (Consultant Engineering Bureau) (2011a) Tigris and Euphrates Sampling (Final Report), College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, p 46, (Unpublished)

    Google Scholar 

  • CEB (Consultant Engineering Bureau) (2011b) Shatt Al-Arab, final report (in Arabic), College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, p 101, (Unpublished)

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations) (1970) Salinity Seminar Baghdad, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 7, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations) (1976) Water quality for agriculture. Irrigation and drainage paper 29 Rev1. FAO, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Fattah QN, Abdul Baki SJ (1980) Effects of drainage systems on water quality of major Iraqi rivers. Int Assoc Hydrol Sci Publ 130:265–270

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick RW (2004) Changes in soil and water characteristics of natural, drained and re-flooded soils in the Mesopotamian marshlands: implications for land management planning, Report from CSIRO Land and Water, p 81

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghadiri H, Ghadiri M (2005) Marshlands of Mesopotamia and the Rivers that feed them, the 8th International River symposium, September 4–7, Brisbane, Australia, pp 1–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Grego S, Micangeli A, Esposto S (2004) Water purification in the Middle East crisis: a survey on WTP and CU in Basra (Iraq) area within a research and development program. Desalination 165:73–79

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haigh FF (1951) Report on the control of the Rivers of Iraq and the utilization of their waters. Directorate general of irrigation

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanna AB, Al Talbani K (1970) Evaluation of water quality in Iraq. First Technical Conference. Arab Federation of Agricultural Engineers, Khartoum, Sudan

    Google Scholar 

  • Harza Engineering Company (1963) Hydrologic survey of Iraq: final report, Baghdad, Iraq

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes K (2010) Tigris and Euphrates River basin map. Annual precipitation in the river basin for 2010 (Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria), scale 1:5,300,000

    Google Scholar 

  • Houston Advanced Research Center (HARC) (2015) Report: Euphrates-Tigris Basin. http://www.harcresearch.org/sites/default/files/Project_Documents/Reports1-EuphratesTigris.pdf. Accessed 10 March 2016

  • ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas) (2012) Iraq salinity assessment, managing salinity in Iraq’s agriculture, current state, causes, and impacts, an overview of the scope and scale of soil and water salinity in central and southern Iraq, report 1: situation analysis. ICARDA, Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • IQBS (Iraqi Bureau for Standards) (2001) Iraqi quality standards for drinking water IQBS 417/2001

    Google Scholar 

  • Jalut QH, Abbas NL, Mohammad AT (2018) Management of groundwater resources in the Al-Mansourieh zone in the Diyala River basin in eastern Iraq. Groundw Sustain Dev 6:79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2017.11.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jassim SZ, Goff JC (2006) “Geology of Iraq”, Dolin, Prague, Czech Republic, p 352

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolars J (1994) Problems of international river management: the case of the Euphrates. In: Biswas AK (ed) International waters of the Middle East – from Euphrates-Tigris to Nile. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 44–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Irrigation (MoI) (1997) (now Ministry of Water Resources), salinity data, unpublished, obtained

    Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Irrigation (MoI) (2002) (now Ministry of Water Resources), hydrogeological investigations of Al Atshan River (in Arabic). Baghdad, Iraq (Unpublished)

    Google Scholar 

  • Morford S (2014) Salinity in the Colorado River Basin. Bureau of Reclamation, Phoenix, AZ

    Google Scholar 

  • Murakami M (1995) Managing water for peace in the Middle East: alternative strategies. United Nations University Press, Tokyo, p 320

    Google Scholar 

  • Mutlak SM, Salih BM, Tawfiq SJ (1980) Water Air Soil Pollut 13:9. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02262520

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Odemis B, Sangun MK, Evrendilek F (2010) Quantifying long-term changes in water quality and quantity of Euphrates and Tigris rivers, Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 170(1):475–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-1248-3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Partow H (2001) The Mesopotamian marshlands: demise of an ecosystem early warning and assessment technical report, UNEP/DEWA/Tr 01-3 rev. 1, division of early warning and assessment. United Nations environment program, Nairobi, Kenya

    Google Scholar 

  • Peirson WL, Bishop K, Van Senden D, Horton PR, Adamantidis CA (2002) Environmental water requirements to maintain estuarine processes

    Google Scholar 

  • Philip Williams and Associates (PWA) (2006) A review of the Hydrological and Geomorphic Impacts of the Proposed Ilisu Dam. Available from WEED, http://www2.weed-online.org/uploads/PWA_Ilisu_Report.pdf

  • Polservice (1980) Shatt Al-Arab project-feasibility report, VII, Ministry of Irrigation, Iraq, Unpublished report

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahi KA (2018) Salinity management in the Shatt al-Arab river. Int J Eng Tech 7(4.20):128–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahi KA, Halihan T (2010) Changes in the salinity of the Euphrates River system in Iraq. Reg Environ Change 10:27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-009-0083-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahi KA, Halihan T (2018) Salinity evolution of the Tigris River. Reg Environ Chang 18:2117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1344-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson CJ (2016) Mesopotamian marshes of Iraq. In: Finlayson CM et al (eds) The wetland book. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_70-1

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Saleh DK (2010) Stream gage descriptions and streamflow statistics for sites in the Tigris River and Euphrates River basins, Iraq (no. 540). US Geological Survey

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheumann W (1993) New irrigation scheme in Southeast Anatolia and in Northern Syria: more competition and conflict over the Euphrates. Q J Int Agric 32(3):240–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Topkaya B (1998) Water resources in the Middle East: forthcoming problems and solutions for sustainable development of the region. Akdeniz University, Faculty of Engineering

    Google Scholar 

  • UN-ESCWA and BGR (United Nations Economics and Social Commission for Western Asia; Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe) (2013) Chapter 3, tigris river basin. In: Inventory of shared water resources in Western Asia. UN-ESCWA and BGR, Beirut

    Google Scholar 

  • UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) (2003) Desk study on the environment of Iraq, Switzerland, 96 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • USBR (United States Bureau of Reclamation) (2013) Quality of water, Colorado River basin, progress report no. 24, reclamation: managing rivers in the west. https://www.usbr.gov/uc/progact/salinity/pdfs/PR24final.pdf. Accessed 10 March 2016

  • Vaghefi SA, Mousavi SJ, Abbaspour KC, Srinivasan R, Yang H (2013) Analyses of the impact of climate change on water resources components, drought and wheat yield in semiarid regions: Karkheh River basin in Iran. Hydrol Process 28(4):2018–2032. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9747

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinthal E (2002) State-making and environmental, cooperation. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, p 274

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (World Health Organization) (2004) International standards of drinking water. In: Recommendations, vol 1, 3rd edn. World Health Organization, Geneva, p 515

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq

    Khayyun Amtair Rahi

  2. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA

    Todd Halihan

Authors
  1. Khayyun Amtair Rahi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Todd Halihan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Khayyun Amtair Rahi .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Environmental and Animal Sciences, Unitec Institute of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand

    Laith A. Jawad

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Rahi, K.A., Halihan, T. (2021). Surface Water Salinity of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Shatt al-Arab Rivers. In: Jawad, L.A. (eds) Tigris and Euphrates Rivers: Their Environment from Headwaters to Mouth. Aquatic Ecology Series, vol 11. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57570-0_13

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation