Healthcare Choices and Use of Medicinal Plants: An Ethnobotanical Study in Kanda Area of Bajhang District, Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal

Abstract

This study was conducted in the Kanda Area of Bajhang District, Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. Inhabitants of the study areas have deep and extensive ethnobotanical knowledge on healthcare choices. They use plant resources on a wide scale to treat certain diseases, illnesses and ailments/conditions. Even though many resort to the local health post and to privately run pharmacies for allopathic medicines, the large majority use these in conjunction with household remedies made from local medicinal plants. Their uses are intertwined and interconnected. A small number resort to traditional healers, either alone or in conjunction with other medicinal practices. Shamanism is important part of traditional medicinal practices. Thus, important changes are taking place in perceptions and knowledge as well as the use of local plant resources. This study documented TK of remote villages in Far-Western Nepal.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Popularity and Use Value of Traditionally Used Medicinal Plants

SN	Scientific name	Origin	English name	Nepali name	No of mentions	Location of voucher specimen
1	Aconitum spicatum (Brühl) Stapf	W	Nepal aconite	Bish	1	BRD A189
2	Acorus calamus L.	W	Sweet flag	Bojho	3	KEKE 1049(E)
3	Allium sativum L.	C	Garlic	Lasun	2
4	Allium wallichii Kunth	W	Himalayan onion	Banlasun	1	LKSRC 100
5	Alnus nepalensis D. Don	W	Alder	Uttis	1	BM00 1118978
6	Artemisia indica Willd.	W	Mugwort	Titepati	3	LKSRD 299
7	Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.	W	Rock foil	Pakhanved	2	10004374
8	Cannabis sativa L.	W	Marijuana	Bhang	2	Darchula 2012 1217005
9	Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) Th. G. G. Nees	D	Cinnamon	Dalchini	1	Darchula 2012 1216013
10	Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck	C	Lemon	Nibu	1
11	Cocos nucifera L.	Exotic	Coconut	Narival	1
12	Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.	C	Turmeric	Kalo besar, baakhre saro	4	E00097555
13	Curcuma aromatica Salisb.	W	White turmeric	Kachur	1	e00226745
14	Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.	W	Dodder	Akasbeli	1	LKSRD 297
15	Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó	W	Himalayan marsh orchid	Panchaunle	9	Darchula 2012 1218063
16	Delphinium himalayai Munz	W	Atis	Aadbiso	2	BM000 894713
17	Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf	W	Halfa grass	Kush	1	BSH C104
18	Drepanostachyum intermedium (Munro) Keng f.	W	Bamboo	Nigalo	2
19	Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C. E. Hubb.	W	Sabaigrass	Babiyo	1	1080 (KATH)
20	Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don	W	Himalayan fritillary	Pode, podya, ban lasun	1	A205
21	Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis	W	Himalayan nettle	Allo	1	B208
22	Hedychium ellipticum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.	W	Ginger lily	Ragatselo, ratosaro	2	E00211082
23	Hippolytica dolichophylla (Kitam.) K. Bremer & Humphries	W	Tanacetum	Bayajadi	11	BRD A089
24	Hippophae salicifolia D. Don	W	Seabuckthorn	Tarechuck	1	BSD D43
25	Juglans regia L.	W	Walnut	Okhar	1	BM00 1011950
26	Juniperus indica Bertol.	W	Black juniper	Dhupisalla	1	DNEP3 BY66
27	Ligusticopsis wallichiana (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov.	W	Dyer’s madder	Bhutkesh	3	LKSRD 151
28	Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude	W	Lyonia	Andyar	1	A168
29	Machilus odoratissima Nees	W	Fragrant bay tree	Kaulo	1	6188 (BM)
30	Morella esculenta (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) I. M. Turner	W	Box myrtle	Kaphal	2	LKSRD 212
31	Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk) G. H. Sung, J. M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora	W	Caterpillar fungus	Yarsagumba	1	DA 19a
32	Paris polyphylla Sm.	W	Love apple	Satuwa	3	BM00 1122818
33	Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell	W	Gentian	Kutki, katuko	26	BM00 1118920
34	Pinus roxburghii Sarg.	W	Chir pine	Khotesalla	2	BM00 0949736
35	Piper nigrum L.	C	Black pepper	Marich	1
36	Plantago asiatica subsp. erosa (Wallich) Z.Y. Li	W	Ripple grass	Isabgola	1	E00 214386
37	Pleurospermum dentatum (DC.) C. B. Clarke	W	Pleurospermum	Gadalnu	18	DNEP3 AY158
38	Prinsepia utilis Royle	W	Prinsepia	Dhatelo	1	2755 (KATH)
39	Prunus persica (L.) Stokes	W	Peach	Aru	1	BRD B148
40	Punica granatum L.	C	Pomegranate	Darim	1
41	Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem.	W	Himalayan firethorn	Ghangaru	1	LKSRD 322
42	Rheum australe D. Don	W	Himalayan rhubarb	Padamchal	7	EKSIN 164
43	Rheum moorcroftianum Royale	W	Rhubarb	Dol	3
44	Rubus ellipticus Smith	W	Golden Himalayan raspberry	Ainselu	1	E00 253729
45	Sarcococca hookeriana Baill.	W	Himalayan sweet box	Telpara, telparo	1	LKSRC 126
46	Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H. Karst.	W	Chiretta	Chiraito	4	LKSRD 244
47	Trigonella foenum-graecum L.	C	Fenugreek	Methi	1
48	Urtica dioica L.	W	Stinging nettle	Sisnu	2	LKSRD 360
49	Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper	C	Black gram	Mas	1
50	Zanthoxylum armatum DC.	D	Nepali pepper	Timur	1	E00 477284

1. ^aHoused at Tribhuvan University, Central Herbarium, W = wild; D = domesticated; C = cultivated (local status only and does not reflect the national level origin)

Appendix 2: Diseases Categories, Medicinal Plants and Procedure

Diseases	Scientific name	English name	Nepali name	Procedure
Category DER
Ringworm	Allium sativum	Garlic	Lasun	The bulb of garlic and pleurospermum are mixed in equal proportion and crushed, and a paste is made. A teaspoonful of paste is then added in a glass of lukewarm water and applied for ringworm
	Pleurospermum dentatum	Pleurospermum	Gadalnu
	Bergenia ciliata	Rockfoil	Pakhanved	The rhizomes of rockfoil are mixed with fruits of black pepper in 3:1 ratio and crushed, and the paste made from it is applied for ringworm
Scabies	Artemisia indica	Mugwort	Titepati	The leaves of mugwort and marijuana are crushed and used as a soap while bathing during the new year to get rid of scabies
	Cannabis sativa	Marijuana	Bhang
	Lyonia ovalifolia	Lyonia	Andyar	The leaves of lyonia are crushed, and the juice is applied to get rid of scabies. It feels like burning
Category INF
Burn	Pyracantha crenulata	Himalayan firethorn	Ghangaru	The leaves of Himalayan firethorn are crushed, and the powder made from this is applied to burn
	Cocos nucifera	Coconut	Narival	Coconut oil is applied to burn
Fever	Swertia chirayita	Chiretta	Chiraito	Chiretta plant and the roots of gentian are crushed and boiled in water. The juice made from it is also drunk for fever The roots of gentian are crushed and mixed in water. The juice made from this is drunk four times a day for fever
	Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora	Gentian	Kutki
	Aconitum spicatum	Nepal aconite	Bish	The roots of Nepal aconite are boiled in water, and the juice is drunk for fever. It also kills people if it is overdosed.
	Hippolytica dolichophylla	Tanacetum	Bayajadi	The roots of tanacetum and gentian are cut into small pieces and chewed for fever
Category DIG
Diarrhoea	Ophiocordyceps sinensis	Caterpillar fungus	Yarsagumba	Caterpillar fungus powder is orally taken for diarrhoea
	Trigonella foenum-graecum	Fenugreek	Methi	Fenugreek seeds and pleurospermum are boiled, and the juice is drunk for diarrhoea
	Pleurospermum dentatum	Pleurospermum	Gadalnu
	Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora	Gentian	Kutki	The roots of gentian are chewed together with a glass of water for diarrhoea
Gastritis	Plantago erosa	Ripple grass	Isabgola	The leaves of ripple grass are crushed. The resulting juice is drunk for gastritis
	Hippolytica dolichophylla	Tanacetum	Bayajadi	The roots of tanacetum and pleurospermum are cut into small pieces. The juice prepared after boiling them is drunk three to four times a day for gastritis
	Pleurospermum dentatum	Pleurospermum	Gadalnu
Heartburn	Curcuma aromatica	White turmeric	Kachur	The rhizome of white turmeric, ginger lily and gentian are crushed, and the juice made from this is drunk for heartburn
	Hedychium ellipticum	Ginger lily	Ragatselo
	Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora	Gentian	Kutki
Indigestion	Rubus ellipticus	Golden Himalayan raspberry	Ainselu	The roots of golden Himalayan raspberry are crushed. The resulting juice is given to child suffering from indigestion
Stomach ache	Hippolytica dolichophylla	Tanacetum	Bayajadi	The roots of tanacetum and pleurospermum are cut into small pieces and chewed once a day for stomach ache The roots of pleurospermum are cut into small pieces and chewed them twice a day for stomach ache. The tubers of the Himalayan marsh orchid and roots of pleurospermum are cut into small pieces and soaked in water, and the juice is drunk twice a day for stomach ache The roots of gentian and the Himalayan marsh orchid are soaked in water, and the juice made from this is drunk for stomach ache
	Pleurospermum dentatum	Pleurospermum	Gadalnu
	Dactylorhiza hatagirea	Himalayan marsh orchid	Panchaunle
	Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora	Gentian	Kutki
Worm	Hedychium ellipticum	Ginger lily	Ragatselo	The roots of ginger lily are boiled in water and the resulting juice is drunk for worm
Category INJ
Cut	Paris polyphylla	Ginseng	Satuwa	The roots of ginseng, Himalayan fritillary and the Himalayan marsh orchid are crushed, and the paste is applied to the cut
	Fritillaria cirrhosa	Himalayan fritillary	Pode
	Dactylorhiza hatagirea	Himalayan marsh orchid	Panchaunle
	Rheum moorcroftianum	Rhubarb	Dol	The rhizomes of Himalayan rhubarb, rhubarb and the tubers of Himalayan marsh orchid are crushed, and the paste made from it is applied to the cut
	Rheum australe	Himalayan rhubarb	Padamchal
	Allium wallichii	Himalaya onion	Banlasun	The bulb of the Himalaya onion is crushed, and the powder is applied to the cut
	Pinus roxburghii	Chir pine	Khote salla	The resin of chir pine is applied alone to the cut
Wounds and finger/toe infection	Pleurospermum dentatum	Pleurospermum	Gadalnu	The roots of pleurospermum and dyer’s madder are dried and then crushed. The powder is applied to the wounds
	Ligusticopsis wallichiana	Dyer’s madder	Bhutkesh
	Paris polyphylla	Ginseng	Satuwa	The root of ginseng, Himalayan fritillary and Himalayan marsh orchid are crushed, and the paste is applied to the wounds
	Fritillaria cirrhosa	Himalayan fritillary	Pode
	Dactylorhiza hatagirea	Himalayan marsh orchid	Panchaunle
	Urtica dioica	Common nettle	Sisnu	The roots of common nettle, Himalayan nettle and Himalayan marsh orchid and the bark of Indian bay leaf, fragrant bay tree, box myrtle and pleurospermum are mixed, crushed and made a paste. Initially, the paste is applied to the infected parts in alternative days and then twice a week once the infection starts to heal
	Girardinia diversifolia	Himalayan nettle	Allo
	Cinnamomum tamala	Indian bay leaf	Dalchini
	Morella esculenta	Box myrtle	Kaphal
	Machilus odoratissima	Fragrant bay tree	Kaulo
	Piper nigrum	Black pepper	Marich
Category MSK
Back pain	Alnus nepalensis	Alder	Uttis	The bark of an alder tree, the roots of prinsepia and gentian are crushed. A paste made from this is applied to back pain twice a day
	Prinsepia utilis	Prinsepia	Dhatelo
	Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora	Gentian	Kutki
Arthritis	Hippolytica dolichophylla	Tanacetum	Bayajadi	The roots of tanacetum are cleaned, made into small pieces and chewed for arthritis
	Pleurospermum dentatum	Pleurospermum	Gadalnu	The roots of tanacetum and pleurospermum are cleaned, made into small pieces and chewed for arthritis
Broken and dislocated bones	Drepanostachyum intermedium	Bamboo	Nigalo	Bamboo slices are used to make a frame, kapro, to cover the broken and dislocated bones after applying the herbal paste
	Hedychium ellipticum	Ginger lily	Ragatselo	The roots of ginger lily are cooked, and the paste is also applied to the broken and dislocated bones
	Pinus roxburghii	Chir pine	Khote salla	The resin of chir pine is applied alone to dislocated parts. However, the resin, rhizome of rhubarb, turmeric and a pinch of salt are mixed, crushed and cooked in water to make a paste. The thick paste is applied to swelling parts and dislocated bones
	Curcuma angustifolia	Turmeric	Haldi
	Rheum moorcroftianum	Rhubarb	Dol
	Dactylorhiza hatagirea	Himalayan marsh orchid	Panchaunle	The tubers of Himalayan marsh orchid and Himalayan rhubarb are crushed, and the paste made from this is applied to dislocated and broken bones
	Rheum australe	Himalayan rhubarb	Padamchal
Category RES
Coughs and colds	Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora	Gentian	Kutki	The roots of gentian are crushed and boiled in water, and the juice is drunk for coughs and colds. Amount should be between 2 and 3 g added on water and drunk twice a day The roots of gentian and Himalayan rhubarb are crushed and mixed in water. The juice made from this is drunk for 5–7 days for coughs and colds. Small pieces of roots of these herbs are chewed as well for this complaint The fruits of Nepali pepper, the roots of sweet flag, gentian and chiretta are crushed and cooked in water. The juice made from this is drunk for coughs and colds The roots of gentian and chiretta plant are boiled in water, and the juice is drunk for coughs and colds
	Rheum australe	Himalayan rhubarb	Padamchal
	Acorus calamus	Sweet flag	Bojho
	Zanthoxylum armatum	Nepali pepper	Timur
	Swertia chirayita	Chiretta	Chiraito
High-altitude sickness	Hippophae salicifolia	Sea buckthorn	Tarechuck	The fruits of pomegranate, sea buckthorn and lemon are eaten for high-altitude sickness
	Citrus limon	Lemon	Nibu
	Punica granatum	Pomegranate	Darim
Category CVC
Jaundice	Hedychium ellipticum	Ginger lily	Ragatselo	The roots of ginger lily are crushed, and the resulting juice is drunk for jaundice