Skip to main content

Martial Arts Spirituality in Sweden: The Occult Connection

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Occult Nineteenth Century
  • 378 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter discusses how the Swedish discourse on Japanese martial arts intersected with occultist discourses from the turn of the century onwards. These overlaps are analysed drawing on Christopher Partridge’s concept “occulture” and Colin Campbell’s notion of a “cultic milieu” and furthermore by situating the material in the specific local context of Swedish secularity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    For example, Sweden’s biggest newspaper, Dagens Nyheter, published an article with the heading “Träning och hälsa ny religion” (“Exercise and Health New Religion”) on February 22, 2017 (https://www.dn.se/insidan/den-som-inte-tranar-kan-behandlas-samre-i-varden/. Accessed 9 September 2020).

  2. 2.

    It is notable here that various constructions of “Yoga” have been intertwined with Western esotericism for a long period (see Baier 1998).

  3. 3.

    http://www.fightingarts.com/reading/article.php?id=36. Accessed 25 June 2019. The American survey has some problems regarding the sample size (1000 individuals) and the unclear way in which the selection was done. For the Swedish figures, see Stenudd 1992: 157.

  4. 4.

    There are important differences between the Chinese concept and the Japanese/Korean ki (in themselves quite fuzzy and subject to change over time), which are often obfuscated by Western martial arts practitioners and in New Age contexts. forms the basis for, among other things, Chinese medical systems like acupuncture, and Japanese shiatsu massage. The basic idea, if we simplify strongly, is that /ki is a life force, a sort of subtle energy flow moving along channels in our bodies, which is of decisive importance for our health (Holt 2001: 335–336; Hammer 1997: 173–174). It is commonly claimed that /ki can also be used to make kicking and punching techniques in martial arts more powerful—one of the most widespread ideas related to “spiritual” dimensions that can be found among Western martial arts practitioners, even those who might otherwise claim to be rationalist, materialist atheists. This is one indication of the overlaps with a broader New Age field, where and ki are also popular concepts (Hammer 1997: 189–190).

  5. 5.

    I have made an inventory of the issues between 2005–2008 of Black Belt (published since 1961) and 2004–2005 of Inside Kung Fu (published from 1973 to 2011). For a more detailed discussion of the “spiritual” content in these magazines, see Faxneld 2016: 58–59.

  6. 6.

    See http://iogkf.se. Accessed 25 June 2019.

  7. 7.

    Parts of this paragraph are based on a grant application co-written with Manon Hedenborg-White and Henrik Bogdan.

  8. 8.

    The terms East and West have rightly been criticised and deconstructed in a number of studies. Yet, as Borup (2017: 15) points out, until very recently (arguably still, in many quarters) “such a dichotomy did make sense to a lot of people (both in the ‘East’ and in the ‘West’), and outside the academia, they still have utility value and effect. As such, they were and are real as discourses and narratives. Accepting the fact that there is no one-to-one relationship between concept and content, and that neither cultures nor religions are static essences, as ideal types ‘East’ and ‘West’ can be applied as concepts in overall discursive narratives with some geographical resonance.” It is in this pragmatic sense the terms are used here.

  9. 9.

    Parts of this paragraph are based on a grant application co-written with Manon Hedenborg-White and Henrik Bogdan. It should be noted that the interpretation of the Japanese term is mainly Robertson’s idea; an alternative approach is translating it simply as “indigenisation.”

  10. 10.

    Tweed 2005. McMahan (2008: 125) states that Suzuki “reframes [Zen] in terms of a language of metaphysics derived from German Romantic idealism, English Romanticism, and American Transcendentalism” (see also Sharf 1995: 141–143), while Tweed (2005) stresses the importance of Theosophy in Suzuki’s thinking. In fact, Suzuki and his American wife were both highly active members of the Theosophical Society and ran a Theosophical lodge in Kyōto. Such influences, then, coloured the image of bushidō’s relation to Zen spread in Suzuki’s writings.

  11. 11.

    Krug 2001: 396–397. All these arts have their origin in older varieties, but the present-day systems arose approximately in the periods stated. For a history of bushidō, see Benesch 2014.

  12. 12.

    See also http://www.wadoryu.se/karate. Accessed 25 June 2019.

  13. 13.

    Suzuki 1959: 61–214. Suzuki notes in the preface that the long chapters on swordsmanship (“Zen and Swordsmanship I,” “Zen and Swordsmanship II”) are additions to the new version of the book, belonging to “such subjects as have happened to arouse my new concern” (Suzuki 1959: v). The first version of the book only contained the chapter “Zen and the Samurai” related to this theme.

  14. 14.

    In the 1970s, due primarily to Bruce Lee (1940–1973), Chinese martial arts also became popular. For reasons of space, I will here focus on Japanese styles.

  15. 15.

    Japanese military victories as a result of bushidō was also suggested by the international press (e.g., The London Times), a view subsequently summarised by the Swedish press (e.g., Dagens Nyheter, June 6, 1905).

  16. 16.

    Original: “den rika doft af praktisk helighet, som hvilar öfver de gåtfulla människorna hinsidan vår jord”; ridderlighetens urgamla, ännu förnimbara, mäktiga förtrollning af Japans själ”; “Buddhas känsla af lugn förtröstan på ödet”; “den vackra brottningskonst som hvarken hvilar på muskelstyrka eller bruk af vapen, jiujitsu”; “Måtte en skymt af den hvita blommas skönhet, som är Bushidos sinnebild, nå många här i vårt land genom denna lilla bok! Ljuset från de osynliga bergen hinsidan skall lära oss det sanna modet, som består i att se hvad som är rätt och göra det.”

  17. 17.

    I have been unable to find any further details regarding the author.

  18. 18.

    Original: “Bushido eller konsten att bli en bättre människa: Ett japanskt jiu-jitsu för själen”; “en man som liknar en yrkesboxare färdig att gå in på arenan”; “Japanernas system är denna gång inte konsten att slå sin konkurrent till marken med några jiu-jitsu-tricks, utan snarare att kufva honom de [sic] ett slags andlig jiu-jitsu.”

  19. 19.

    Gurre 1910: 35 (“[d]en sensationslystne läsaren”; “något annat—mysteriers afslöjande eller beskrifning på elementarandars besvärjelseformler.”; “en hemlig lära”).

  20. 20.

    Gurre 1910: 36 (“inga logehemligheter eller ordenslärdomar, och ‘ockulta’ kunskaper som skola förbli enstaka ‘adepters’ omsorgsfullt bevarade privategendom äro fabler”).

  21. 21.

    Gurre 1910: 37 (“astralorganism”).

  22. 22.

    Gurre 1910: 39 (“tankarna alstras icke af den i oss individualiserade viljan, de existera själfständigt i den ofvan omnämnda, oändliga astrala tankevärlden”).

  23. 23.

    Gurre 1910: 77 (“En verklig mästare i de ockulta vetenskaperna eller frimureriet behöfver inte sträcka ut sina händer efter pengar. De tillfalla honom af sig själfva. De dithörande tankekrafter, han medvetet hänvisat till deras arbetsfält, sörja utan hans vidare medverkan för, att det han önskade eller åstundade faller rikligt i hans sköte”).

  24. 24.

    Gurre 1910: 82 (“Ingen kan skada dig, furste, ty din astrala arm är oemotståndlig”).

  25. 25.

    Gurre 1910: 88 (“De ockulta lärdomarna äro alltför subtila. De gilda som småfisk ut genom de stora maskorna i människohjärnans nät, och allt, hvad man har kvar, är blott ett svagt minne af att man en gång hört något mycket viktigt”).

  26. 26.

    Gurre 1910: 91 (“Huru du skall sätta i verket en eller annan plan med hjälp af tankekraften, får du veta genom de böcker, som skrifvits af representanterna för den esoteriska filosofin, de nya tankarna, vetenskapen om tankarna, de andliga vetenskaperna. En sådan bok är också Bushido, japanernas system”).

  27. 27.

    Original: “Varje amerikansk artist har en religion. Min heter Bushido. Japanerna ha den. Den handlar om självbehärskning och andra hemligheter. Tror man på Bushido, så går det alltid bra för en”.

  28. 28.

    Original: “Att hålla sin kropp stark och spänstig och bevara hälsan är ej blott att njuta fysiskt. Det är att vidga gränsen för sitt andliga liv. Träna och odla kropp och själ till ett smidigt och lydigt verktyg för din vilja”.

  29. 29.

    Original: “västerlänningen har sällan någon aning om att hans träning i dessa s.k. budo-tekniker egentligen är zen-buddhistiska övningar och att hans individuella utveckling inom dessa sporter är helt beroende av en djupare förståelse av övningarnas bakgrund, dvs. Zen-buddhismen”.

  30. 30.

    Original: “budo har adopterats av västerlandet som rena idrotter utan att västerlandet vet någonting om den ideologiska bakgrunden eller det yttersta syftet med övningarna”.

  31. 31.

    Original: “Budo är ingenting annat än rörelsemeditation”.

  32. 32.

    Original: “De japanska idrottsgrenarna har alltid haft en religiös anknytning. Man eftersträvar perfekt samspel mellan kropp och själ.”

  33. 33.

    Original: “Med karate vill man fostra individerna till sådan självbehärskning att de inte använder sig av karate. Man måste nå en viss andlig nivå”).

  34. 34.

    Original: ‘Den som utövar karate i självförsvar måste ha den rätta insikten. Hr Suzuki har själv studerat zenbuddism i 15 år för att tömma sitt medvetande och bli fri från rädsla’

  35. 35.

    http://www.arriba.se. Accessed 25 June 2019.

  36. 36.

    http://teosofiskasamfundet.se/verksamheter/denhemligalaran.html. Accessed 25 June 2019.

  37. 37.

    An interest in Eastern martial arts is also recurrent in other occult groups in Sweden, like the Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), where I have not, however, conducted proper fieldwork (this observation thus being based on a much smaller sample of non-systematic conversations with adherents).

  38. 38.

    Original: “Varje människas personliga kiflöde måste sträva mot en förening med det universella flödet. […] När ki verkligen flödar gränslöst ger detta en andlig upplevelse som gör det individuella alldeles betydelselöst. Man börjar andas själva den kosmiska etern och det jag är som bildar kärna i ki går upp i hela universums varande. Man upphör att vara skild från existensen, utan blir som ett med världsalltet”.

  39. 39.

    Original: “I västerländsk ockult tradition finns liknande varningar. Man talar där om vit och svart magi, där den förra är välvillig och mjuk i sitt uttryck, men den senare hård och destruktiv. […] Med ki såväl som magi är det inte omöjligt att tjusas av möjligheten till makt, men det blir förmörkande. […] Västerländsk parapsykologisk forskning talar idag ofta om psi, som ett samlande namn för de krafter som inte går att förklara—telepati, psykokinesi och så vidare. Om dessa fenomen är riktiga måste något slags kraft eller förmåga ligga bakom, menar man, och det är rimligt att man då alltmer närmar sig det österländska begreppet ki”.

References

Primary Sources

  • Black Belt. 2005–2008. Active Interest Media, Vol. 43–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronholm, Viking. 1908. Jiu-Jitsu tricks. Japanskt system för själfförsvar. Fröléen & Comp: Stockholm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Floridor. 1910. Bushido eller konsten att bli en bättre människa. Ett japanskt jiu-jitsu för själen. Dagens Nyheter (September 7): 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerne, D:r. 1906. Japans själ. Dagens nyheter (November 15): 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurre, V. 1910. Bushido: Japanernas system: Behärska dina medmänniskor med tankens makt! Stockholm: Fröléen & Comp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inside Kung Fu. 2004–2005. Active Interest Media, Vol. 31–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markos, Imi. 1965. Mystiken kring VM-knocken skingrad? Clay utbildad i karate! Aftonbladet (May 30): 18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Path-Finder. 1904. A Monthly Magazine Devoted to Literature, Science, Philosophy, and the Higher Development of the Human Race – Physical and Metaphysical. (May). 3 (5).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pius. 1913. Fröken Märta Hedman på besök i Stockholm. Dagens Nyheter (July 19): 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • s.n. 1968. Snabbhet och teknik avgör i karate. Dagens Nyheter (August 12): 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandor, Robert von. 1970. Budo: Den japanske krigarens väg till zen. Stockholm: Forum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki, Daisetsu Teitaro. 1959. Zen and Japanese Culture. New York: Pantheon Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Segnogram. 1905 (October). 5 (1).

    Google Scholar 

  • Weimark, Arthur. 1922. Jiu-Jitsu: Japansk försvarsmetod. Stockholm: Bonnier.

    Google Scholar 

Secondary Sources

  • af Burén, Ann. 2015. Living Simultaneity: On Religion Among Semi-Secular Swedes. Huddinge: Södertörns högskola.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baier, Karl. 1998. Yoga auf dem Weg nach Westen: Beiträge zur Rezeptionsgeschichte. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benesch, Oleg. 2014. Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushido in Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Borup, Jørn. 2017. Pizza, Curry, Skyr and Whirpool Effects: Religious Circulations Between East and West. In Eastspirit: Transnational Spirituality and Religious Circulation in East and West, ed. Jørn Borup and Marianne Fibiger, 13–35. Leiden and Boston: Brill.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Borup, Jørn, and Marianne Fibiger. 2017. Introduction. In Eastspirit: Transnational Spirituality and Religious Circulation in East and West, ed. Jørn Borup and Marianne Fibiger, 1–10. Leiden and Boston: Brill.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, Colin. 1972. The Cult, the Cultic Milieu and Secularization. In Sociological Year-book of Religion in Britain, ed. Michael Hill, vol. 5, 119–136. London: SCM Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2007. The Easternization of the West: A Thematic Account of Cultural Change in the Modern Era. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, J.J. 2000. The Tao of the West: Western Transformations of Taoist Thought. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faxneld, Per. 2016. Förnuftet är en dålig guide: Sekularitet och andlighetsdiskurs inom östasiatiska kampkonster i Väst. Aura. Tidskrift för akademiska studier av nyreligiositet 8 (1): 57–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friday, Karl F. 1997. Legacies of the Sword: The Kashima-Shinryu and Samurai Martial Culture. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Frisk, Lotte, and Peter Åkerbäck. 2015. New Religiosity in Contemporary Sweden: The Dalarna Study in National and International Context. Sheffield: Equinox.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giordan, Giuseppe, and Enzo Pace, eds. 2012. Mapping Religion and Spirituality in a Postsecular World. Leiden and Boston: Brill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greger, Hans, and Tony Hansson. 2005. Ju-jutsu: Självförsvar med tradition och kvalitet. Stockholm: Svenska ju-jutsförbundet.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gyllerström, Kenneth. 1960. Jiu-Jitsu och Judoboken. Stockholm: Walhström & Widstrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallisey, C. 1995. Roads Taken and Not Taken in the Study of Theravada Buddhism. In Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism Under Colonialism, ed. Donald S. Lopez, 31–61. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammer, Olav. 1997. På spaning efter helheten: New Age, en ny folktro? Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2004. Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age. Leiden and Boston: Brill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanegraaff, Wouter. 1996. New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden and Boston: Brill.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hatsumi, M. 2004. The Way of the Ninja: Secret Techniques. Tokyo: Kodansha.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heelas, Paul, and Linda Woodhead. 2005. The Spiritual Revolution: Why Religion is Giving Way to Spirituality. Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt, Ronald L. 2001. Meditation. In Martial Arts of the World, ed. Thomas A. Green, 335–338. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hornborg, A.-C. 2012. Coaching och lekmannaterapi: En modern väckelse? Stockholm: Dialogos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huss, Boaz. 2014. Spirituality: The Emergence of a New Cultural Category and its Challenge to the Religious and the Secular. Journal of Contemporary Religion 29 (1): 47–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohn, Tamara. 2003. The Aikido Body: Expressions of Group Identities and Self-Discovery in Martial Arts Training. In Sport, Dance and Embodied Identities, ed. Noel Dyck and Eduardo P. Archetti, 139–155. Oxford: Berg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krug, Gary J. 2001. At the Feet of the Master: Three Stages in the Appropriation of Okinawan Karate into Anglo-American Culture. Cultural Studies, Critical Methodologies 1 (4): 395–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, Bruce. 2005. Theses on Method. Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 17 (1): 8–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahan, David L. 2008. The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mercadante, Linda A. 2014. Belief without Borders: Inside the Minds of the Spiritual But Not Religious. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Moberg, Marcus, et al. 2015. Diversification, Mainstreaming, Commercialization and Domestication: Trends within New Religious Movements in Finland. In Handbook of Nordic New Religions, ed. Inga B. Tøllefsen and James R. Lewis, 141–157. Leiden and Boston: Brill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, Pippa, and Ronald Inglehart. 2004. Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Partridge, Christopher. 2004/2005. The Re-Enchantment of the West: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture, and Occulture. Vol. 2. London: T&T Clark.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prebish, Charles, and Martin Baumann, eds. 2002. Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raposa, Michael L. 1999. Pragmatism, Budo, and the Spiritual Exercises. American Journal of Theology & Philosophy 20 (2): 105–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, Roland. 1995. Glocalization: Time–Space and Homogeneity–Heterogeneity. In Global Modernities, ed. Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson, 25–44. London: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ron, Roy. 2001. Japan. In Martial Arts of the World, ed. Thomas A. Green, 79–199. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, Alexandra. 2008. Globalisation and the “Internal Alchemy” in Chinese Martial Arts. East Asian Science, Technology and Society 2 (4): 525–543.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharf, Robert H. 1995. The Zen of Japanese Nationalism. In Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism Under Colonialism, ed. Donald S. Lopez, 107–160. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, Mark. 2010. Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Stenudd, Stefan. 1992. Aikido. Den fredliga kampkonsten. Malmö: Arriba.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, John. 2007. Zen Bow, Zen Arrow: The Life and Teachings of Awa Kenzo, the Archery Master from Zen in the Art of Archery. Boston: Shambhala.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurfjell, David. 2015. Det gudlösa folket. De postkristna svenskarna och religionen. Stockholm: Molin & Sorgenfrei.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tøllefsen, Inga B. 2015. The Art of Living Foundation in Norway: Indigenization and Continuity. In Handbook of Nordic New Religions, ed. Inga B. Tøllefsen and James R. Lewis, 239–253. Leiden and Boston: Brill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tweed, Thomas. 2005. American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 32 (2): 249–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urban, Hughes. 2003. Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics and Power in the Study of Religion. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Willander, Erika. 2015. Religiositet och sekularisering. In Sociologiska perspektiv på religion i Sverige, ed. Mia Lövheim and Magdalena Nordin, 53–68. Malmö: Gleerups.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamada, Shoji. 2001. The Myth of Zen in the Art of Archery. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 28 (1–2): 1–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoshinaga, Shinichi. 2014. Three Boys on a Great Vehicle: “Mahayana Buddhism” and a Trans-National Network. In A Buddhist Crossroads: Pioneer Western Buddhists and Asian Networks 1860–1960, ed. Brian Bocking, Phibul Choompolpaisal, Laurence Cox, and Alicia M. Turner, 52–65. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Faxneld, P. (2021). Martial Arts Spirituality in Sweden: The Occult Connection. In: Pokorny, L., Winter, F. (eds) The Occult Nineteenth Century. Palgrave Studies in New Religions and Alternative Spiritualities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55318-0_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics