The Religious Justification of Anti-Communist Persecutions in Greece (1920–1949)

Logotheti, Amaryllis

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-54963-3_15

Amaryllis Logotheti³

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Abstract

This chapter sheds light on a turbulent period of the history of modern Greece, namely, the first half of the twentieth century. I investigate the social and political interventions of the parareligious Zoe Brotherhood in Greek society, and its relationship with the state. After the Second World War, Zoe gradually developed a privileged relation with the state, and I argue that this relationship was established because of each party’s development of an anticommunist ideology. I examine the Brotherhood’s orientation from its emergence in 1907 through the next four decades, considering the political developments in Greece and Zoe’s interactions with a changing society.

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Notes

1.
The Greek Civil War was fought between the Greek army, with the backing of the United Kingdom and the United States, and the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE)—the military branch of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE)—backed by Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria, from 1946 to 1949, ending with the former’s defeat of the latter. It is often considered the first proxy war of the Cold War, although the Soviet Union sent no aid.
2.
Ruotsila, M., British and American Anticommunism Before the Cold War, London 2001, 40.
3.
Powers, G. R., Not Without Honor: The History of American Anticommunism, Yale University Press, 1998, 296.
4.
Ibid., 254.
5.
Mitsopoulou, Α., O ellinikos anticommounismos ston “syntomo 20o aiona”, Thessaloniki 2014, 140.
6.
Karagiannis has a chapter in his book about the Greek Church with the title “Zoe and the Greek ‘Opus Dei’”. See Karagiannis, G., “I Zoi kai to elliniko ‘Opus Dei’”, in I Ekklisia apo tin Katohi ston Emfylio, 105–125, Athens 2001.
7.
See, e.g., Gehler, Michael; Kaiser, Wolfram, Christian Democracy in Europe since 1945, Routledge, 2004, and Monsma, Stephen V. Pluralism and Freedom: Faith-based Organizations in a Democratic Society, Rowman & Littlefield, 2012.
8.
Makrides, V., “Secularization and the Greek Orthodox Church in the Reign of King George I”, in Carabott Philip (ed.), Greek Society in the Making, 1863–1913: Realities, Symbols and Visions, London 1997, 179–196, here 189.
9.
Gousidis, A., Oi Xristianikes Organoseis. I periptosi tis Adelfotitos Theologon I Zoe, Thessaloniki 1989, 43.
10.
Bratsiotes, P., “Die Theologen-Bruderschaft Zoe”, Zeitschrift für Religions- und Geistesgeschichte, 12 (1960), 372.
11.
Maczewski, C., I Kinisi tis “Zois” stin Ellada, Athens 2002, 255. Νon-theologians in the Brotherhood carry out technical, accounting and commercial tasks.
12.
There is no source for the total number of Zoe’s members, but the estimation comes from adding the members of every organization. The figures are for 1959 and are cited in Maczewski 2002, 51–60.
13.
Makridis, V., “The Brotherhoods of Theologians in Contemporary Greece”, The Greek Orthodox Theological Review, vol. 33, no. 2 (1988), pp. 167–187, p. 168.
14.
Cited in Maczewski, I Kinisi, 255–256.
15.
Makrides V., “Orthodoxy in the Service of Anticommunism: The Religious Organization Zoe During the Greek Civil War”, in Philip Carabott and Thanasis Sfikas (eds.), The Greek Civil War, Essays on a Conflict of Exceptionalism and Silence, Hampshire 2004, 159–174, here 161.
16.
Karamouzis, P, “Thriskeutikes neolaies kai koinonikopolitiki diekdikisi sti neoelliniki koinonia tou 20ou aiona”, in V. Karamanolakis, E. Olympitou, and I. Papathanasiou (eds.), I elliniki neolaia ston 20o ai. Politikes diadromes, koinonikes praktikes kai politistikes ekfraseis, Athens 2010, 117–133, here 121.
17.
See Evretirion Thematon tou periodikou “Zoe” of the years 1911–1930, Athens 1931. Most anticommunist references are to be found in the volumes for 1927, 1928 and 1930. We find, among many others, the following article titles: “Bolshevism’s theses against religion” (1927), “Bolshevism spreads atheism and anarchy among the pupils” (1925), and “Bolshevism fights the family” (1924).
18.
Zoe, vol. 200, 1915.
19.
Trembelas, P., O istorikos ylismos ex apopseos filosofikis, Athens 1925.
20.
Makrides, “Orthodoxy”, 162.
21.
Farazoulis, D., Omiliai peri ithikis kai sofrosynis, Athens 1927, 77, 80.
22.
Karamouzis, “Thriskeutikes”, 123.
23.
Dimitris Glinos (1882–1943) and Alexandros Delmouzos (1880–1956) were progressive intellectuals who struggled to liberalize education.
24.
Kolitsaras, I., Seraphim Papakostas, Athens 1980, 47.
25.
Bournazos, S., “To Kratos ton Ethnikofornon: Antikommounistikos Logos kai Praktikes”, in Hristos Hatziiosif (ed.), Istoria tis Elladas toy 20ou Aiona, vol. D2, Athens 2009.
26.
Kolitsaras, Seraphim, 55.
27.
Ibid., 52.
28.
Ibid., 55.
29.
Zoe, vol. 1048, 1932.
30.
Karamouzis, “Thriskeutikes”, 124.
31.
Kolitsaras, Seraphim, 58.
32.
See for instance “All these [religious] unions use all means of the reactionary propaganda. Every union publishes its own periodical, organizes excursions, weekly discussions, religious ceremonies and all of the above under a certain program of counterrevolutionary effort that distracts the masses to counterrevolutionary channels.” Apekas K., “I taxiki pali tou proletariatou kai I thriskeutiki antidrasi”, Neoi Protoporoi A’, Athens 1932, 448.
33.
Makrides, V., “The Brotherhoods of Theologians in Contemporary Greece”, The Greek Orthodox Theological Review, vol. 33, no. 2 (1988), 167–187, here 173.
34.
Constantelos, D., The Zoe Movement in Greece. Talk for the “Urban Priest Group” of the Episcopal Church at the Cathedral House of St. John the Divine, New York, 14 January 1959, 9.
35.
Gounaris Dimitrios was the Prime Minister of Greece from 10 March 1915 to 23 August 1915 and 8 April 1921 to 16 May 1922. He founded the Party of the Nationally-Minded (Komma ton Ethnikofronon), which was later renamed the People’s Party. Gounaris was the main right-wing opponent of his contemporary Eleftherios Venizelos.
36.
Nikolakopoulos, I., H Kahektiki Dimokratia, Kommata kai Ekloges 1946–1967, Athens 2001, 35.
37.
Bournazos, S., “To Kratos ton Ethnikofronon: Antikommounistikos Logos kai Praktikes”, in Hristos Hatziiosif (ed.), Istoria tis Elladas tou 20ou Aiona, vol. D2, Athens 2009, 10.
38.
Elefantis, A., I Epaggelia tis Adynatis Epanastasis, Athens 1976, 200.
39.
Papadimitriou, D., Apo ton Lao ton Nomimofronon sto Ethnos ton Ethnikofronon, Athens 2006, 178.
40.
Ibid., 141.
41.
Ibid., 129.
42.
Close, D., “The Changing Structure of the Right, 1945–1950”, in Iatrides, John O. and Linda Wrigley (eds.), Greece at the Crossroads: The Civil War and Its Legacy, USA 1995, 123.
43.
Eleftherios Venizelos was the Prime Minister of Greece from 1910 to 1920 and from 1928 to 1933. A series of disagreements between him and King Constantine I about Greece’s entry into World War I had wider implications for Greece. They represented two radically opposed political camps, whose opposition affected Greek society until World War II.
44.
Mitsopoulou, O ellenikos, 121.
45.
Tzermias, P.N., “Oi fileleutheroi stin Ellada kai o emfylios polemos: Anamesa sta metopa”, in O Fileleutherismos stin Ellada, Fileleutheri Theoria kai Praktiki stin Poltiki kai stin Koinonia tis Ellados, Athens 1991, 107.
46.
Hatziiosif, H., “Dekemvris 1944, telos kai arhi”, in H. Hatziiosif and P. Papastratis (eds.), Istoria tis Elladas tou 20ou aiona, vol. 2, Athens 2007, 387.
47.
The Treaty of Varkiza was signed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs (supported by the British) and the Secretary of the KKE, the EAM and the ELAS. One article of the accord (Article IX) called for a plebiscite to be held within the year to resolve any problems with the Greek Constitution. The plebiscite would help establish national elections and thus create a constituent assembly that would draft the constitution. The treaty also authorized the Allies to send observers to verify the validity of the elections. And it stated that members of the EAM and the ELAS could participate in political activities if they accepted disarmament.
48.
Katiforis, G., I nomothesia ton varvaron, Athens 1975, 61–62.
49.
Ibid., 33.
50.
Ibid.
51.
Bournazos, “To Kratos”, 12. For the clientelism built around the anticommunist state, see also Tsoukalas, K., “I Ideologiki Epidrasi tou Emfyliou Polemou”, in John O. Iatrides (ed.), H Ellada sti Dekaetia 1940–1950, Ena Ethnos se Krisi, Athens 2006, 561–595.
52.
Zoe, “Epi ton gegonoton”, vol. 1416, 1 March 1940.
53.
Mazower, M., Inside Hitler’s Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44, Yale 1995, 44. According to the records of the German army, the mortality rate in Athens alone reached 300 deaths per day in December 1941. The estimates of the Red Cross were much higher: 400 deaths per day, sometimes reaching 1000. For more information, see De Wever, Bruno; van Goethem, Herman; Wouters, Nico, Local Government in Occupied Europe: (1939–1945), Gent 2006, and Hionidou, Violetta, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece: 1941–1944 (1. publ. ed.), Cambridge 2006.
54.
Ioannou, Υ., “O Hristos Arhigos mas”, in I Proteuousa ton Prosfygon, Athens 1984, 129.
55.
Kolitsaras, Ι., Apo tin istorian ths Adelfotitos Theologon “Zoe” kata tin periodon 1940–1944 (tou ellinoitalikou polemou kai tis germanikis katohis), Athens, n.d., 47–49.
56.
Kolitsaras, Ι., Seraphim Papakostas, Athens 1980, 189.
57.
Makrides, “Orthodoxy”, 164.
58.
Gousidis, A., Oi Hristianikes organoseis: I periptosi tis adelfotitos theologon “Zoe”: Koinoniologiki proseggisi, Thessaloniki 1993.
59.
Maczewski, I Kinisi, 82.
60.
According to Μaczewski, the “Declaration” was the first of the three works of Tsirintanis that shaped Zoe’s Weltanschauung. The other two were Towards a Christian Civilization (1950) and For the Way to Open (1957). Zoe considered Towards a Christian Civilization kind of socio-political manifesto. The fact that it was translated in English highlighted its importance. See Maczewski, “Orthodoxy”, 58. The leader of Zoe from 1960 to 1967, Father Elias Mastroyannopoulos called the three texts “the trilogy” that became the ideological basis of the Christian Union of Scientists and, therefore, the core of Zoe’s thought. See Mastroyannopoulos, Elias, Aktines, vol. 289, March 1968, 112.
61.
Maczewski, “Orthodoxy”, 58.
62.
Varnalis, K., “Grammateis kai Farisaioi”, Rizospastis, 12 December 1946.
63.
Ioannou, Y., I Proteuousa ton Prosfygon, Athens 1984, 150.
64.
Yannaras, H., Katafygio Ideon, Athens 1987, 85.
65.
‘Bandit-stricken’ was the propaganda term used by the government and its allies to describe the areas ravaged by the Civil War. They referred to the communists as ‘bandits’ and to the Civil War as the ‘Bandit-war.’ The term ‘Civil War’ was established in Greece after 1980.
66.
Karayiannis, Y., I Ekklhsia apo tin Katohi ston Emfylio, Athens 2001, 115.
67.
Bournazos, p. 32. “We consider propaganda information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016.
68.
Constantellos, The Zoe Movement, 19.
69.
Kotsonis, Ieronymos, “Epistratefsis Agapis”, Aktines, vol. 93, June 1949, 258.
70.
Trembelas, P., Oiktron Fantasiokopimaton Elenhos, Athens 1957. To stress the importance of the tax exemption, Yannara states that only three institutions were exempted from all taxes at the time: The Palace, the American Embassy, and Zoe. See Yannaras 1980, 89.
71.
Empros, 5 March 1952.
72.
Queen Frederica, Metron Katanoiseos, Athens 1971, 175–182.
73.
Hasiotis, L., Ta Paidia toy Emfyliou, Athens 2013, 131.
74.
For more details, see Danforth, L., and van Boeschoten, R., Children of the Greek Civil War, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 2012; and Baerentzen, L., “The ‘Paidomazoma’ and the Queen’s Camp”, in L. Baerentzen et al. (eds.), Studies in the History of the Greek Civil War, 1945–1949, Copenhagen 1987.
75.
Zoe, “Paidomazoma”, vol. 1686, 29 December 1949.
76.
See the booklet of the organization Greek Light, Gia mia kainourgia Ellada, Athens 1950.
77.
Yiannaras 1990, 90.
78.
See, for instance, the works of Professor Papamihail, Grigorios, Socialism and Christianity, Athens 1921, and also the book of another theology professor, closely connected with Zoe, Bratsiotis, P., Was Jesus a Socialist?, Athens 1925.
79.
Karamouzis, 126.
80.
Agouridis, S., I thriskeia ton simerinon Ellinon, Athens 1983, 23.
81.
Excerpt from a speech of N. Zervas, Minister of Public Order, at the Parliament, cited in Sotiropoulos, D., I Politiki Exousia stin Ellada (1946–1967), unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Ionian University, April 2002, 55.

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Amaryllis Logotheti

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Institute of History, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Christian Gerlach
Department of History, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
Clemens Six

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Logotheti, A. (2020). The Religious Justification of Anti-Communist Persecutions in Greece (1920–1949). In: Gerlach, C., Six, C. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Anti-Communist Persecutions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54963-3_15

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54963-3_15
Published: 08 December 2020
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