Abstract
The introduction lays out the volume’s approach and shows how large and widespread anti-communist persecutions were. The collection puts less emphasis than previous scholarship on political ideas, anti-communist organizations, foreign involvement, and Europe. Rather, contributors understand persecution as partially based on interactions among social groups and as complex and dynamic conflicts. This also explains the frequent repression against noncommunists, which worked for extended periods against the plurality of ideas and identities, and attempts of social engineering directed against the communist “threat.” Though often emerging in social crisis, many persecutions of leftists lasted for decades or were frequently repeated. A global view shows common patterns in practices of persecution, non-state actors, roles of race, ethnicity, and religion and responses by those under persecution across countries and continents in more than a century.
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Notes
- 1.
Jack London, The Iron Heel (Edinburgh: Rebel Inc., 1999 [first 1908]).
- 2.
Part of this is in Leon Trotsky, “Jack London’s The Iron Heel” (1937/1945) in London, Iron Heel: v–viii.
- 3.
At present, anti-communist persecutions claim lives in Colombia, India, the Philippines and Turkey. On Colombia and India, see the contributions by Andrei Gomez-Suárez and by Bernard D’Mello and Gautam Navlakha in this volume. For one statement about the decline of anti-communist persecution, see Jean-François Fayet, “Reflections on writing the history of anti-communism”, Twentieth Century Communism, 6 (2014): 11.
- 4.
Assuming such downturns to have taken place 1873–1892, 1914/18–1947, 1973–1992, and from 2008, 20 of the cases listed in Table 1 occurred largely in downturns (B-phases), 11 in A-phases, and 10 stretched over both. Whether such a global periodization makes sense, and thus to take economic synchronization for granted, is debatable.
- 5.
Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1999).
- 6.
This volume is based on a conference, “Anti-communist persecutions in the 20th century”, organized at the University of Bern in April 2017 by Wendy Goldman, Clemens Six and this author.
- 7.
For example, B.A. Schabad, Die politische Philosophie des gegenwärtigen Imperialismus: Zur Kritik der antikommunistischen Grundkonzeption (Berlin [East]: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1970); Wolfgang Wippermann, Heilige Hetzjagd: Eine Ideologiegeschichte des Antikommunismus (Berlin: Rotbuch, 2012); Jahrbuch für Historische Kommunismusforschung (2011): 1–194; Norbert Frei and Dominik Rigoll, eds., Der Antikommunismus in seiner Epoche: Weltanschauung und Politik in Deutschland, Europa und den USA (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2017) (the subtitle is indicative). For the Federal Republik of Germany, see Erhard Albrecht, Der Antikommunismus: Ideologie des Klerikalmilitarismus (Berlin [East]: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1961); the habilitation thesis by Hans Beyer, Wesen, Funktionieren, Differenzen und Formen des Antikommunismus in Westdeutschland (Leipzig: Karl-Marx-Universität, 1966); Werner Hofmann, Zur Soziologie des Antikommunismus (Heilbronn: Distel, n.y. [1982, first published in 1967]). For France: Jean-Jacques Becker and Serge Berstein, Histoire de l’anticommunisme en France, vol I: 1917–1940 (Paris: Olivier Orban, 1987); Communisme, 18, 62–63 (2000): 3–206. For Italy: Aurelio Lepre, L’anticommunismo e l’antifascismo in Italia (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1997). For Belgium: Pascal Delwit and José Gotovich, eds., La peur du rouge (Brussels: Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 1996). For Western Europe and the USA: Twentieth Century Communism, vol. 6 (2014), A Century of Anti-Communism. The literature on U.S. anti-communism is summed up in Marc Selverstone, “A literature so immense: The historiography of anticommunism”, OAH Magazine of History (October 2010): 7–11; an early critical U.S. study is by James Bristol et al., Anatomie des Antikommunismus (Olten: Walter, 1970).
- 8.
Hofmann, Soziologie, 15, for West Germany. An inquiry among elites in Berlin in the 1990s seems to suggest a more differentiated, reflective, and rational kind of anti-communism: Gesine Schwan, Antikommunismus und Antiamerikanismus in Deutschland: Kontinuität und Wandel nach 1945 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1999), 82, 93–99. But Schwan does not take into account how the situation of communication (persons being interviewed for an academic study, possibly trying to appear respectable) influenced the formers’ responses.
- 9.
Typical of this literature is J.B. Kaschlew et al., eds., Antikommunismus: ideologische Hauptwaffe des Imperialismus (Berlin [East]: Staatsverlag der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 1974) with a longer first part „Doktrinen“ (doctrines) and a shorter second part „Apparat“ (apparatus). The relatively best communist depiction in terms of covering organizations, practices, geographical breadth and depth of analysis is the collection Antikommunismus – Feind der Menschheit (Berlin [East]: Dietz, 1963). For anti-communist organizations, see also Georges Lodygensky, Face au communisme: Quand Genève était le centre du mouvement anticommuniste international (Geneva: Éditions Slatkine, 2009); Klaus Körner, „Die rote Gefahr“: Antikommunistische Propaganda in der Bundesrepublik 1950–2000 (Hamburg: Konkret Literatur Verlag, 2003); Giles Scott-Smith, Western Anti-Communism and the Interdoc Network: Cold War Internationale (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Luc van Dongen, Stéphane Roulin, and Giles Scott-Smith, eds., Transnational Anti-Communism and the Cold War: Agents, Activities and Networks (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
- 10.
One example is Becker and Berstein, Histoire: 203–234.
- 11.
Fayet, “Reflections”: 8–21, quotes on 8 and 15 (twice), respectively.
- 12.
This is also true for the recent—despite its subtitle quite conventional—literature survey by Johannes Grossmann, „Die ‚Grundtorheit unserer Epoche‘? Neue Forschungen und Zugänge zur Geschichte des Antikommunismus“, Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 56 (2016): 549–590.
- 13.
To mention just two volumes about Indonesia: Katharine McGregor, Jess Melvin, and Annie Pohlman, eds., The Indonesian Genocide of 1965 (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018); Robert Cribb, ed., The Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966 (Clayton: Monash University, 1990). See the bibliography of our volume.
- 14.
Rosa Luxemburg, „Die Ordnung herrscht in Berlin“, 14 January 1919, in: idem, Gesammelte Werke, vol. 4 (Berlin [East]: Dietz, 1983): 534–535; Karl Liebknecht, „Trotz alledem!“, 15 January 1919, www.mlwerke.de/kl/kl004.htm (accessed 30 January 2019). Both articles were published in the communist daily Die Rote Fahne (Red Flag).
- 15.
Wolfgang Adolphi, „Kommunistenverfolgung“, in: Historisch-kritisches Wörterbuch des Marxismus, vol. 7/II (Berlin: Argument, 2010), 1336.
- 16.
“The Story of the Communist Party”, July 1961, https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjK4Ja_ic_gAhXllYsKHdC-CskQFjACegQIBxAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fpsimg.jstor.org%2Ffsi%2Fimg%2Fpdf%2Ft0%2F10.5555%2Fal.sff.document.pam19610700.043.049_final.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3J8ERnA-hJENp_pf_8Gb-o (accessed 22 February 2019).
- 17.
Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999 [first 1925–1927]), 170–171.
- 18.
The deficiencies in communist writings about anti-communist repression may also have had to do with the tendency toward secrecy within the communist movement, always threatened by repression, in an effort not to give away strategies of survival and evasion.
- 19.
As suggested by Fayet, “Reflections”: 16.
- 20.
This includes research on Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, Indonesia, Argentina, Greece and the Peoples Republic of China during the ‘Cultural Revolution’. For brief remarks about violence against leftists, see J. Pankow et al., Antikommunismus heute (Berlin [East]: Dietz, 1981), 93–96.
- 21.
For a discussion of interests versus ideas, see David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1989), esp. 12, 17–18.
- 22.
See van Dongen et al., Transnational Anti-Communism; Michael Radu, ed., The New Insurgencies: Anti-Communist Guerrillas in the Third World (London and New York: Routledge, 2017 [first 1990]), esp. Radu’s “Introduction”, ibid.: 1–93.
- 23.
For example, see J. Patrice McSherry, “Tracing the origins of a state terror network: Operation Condor”, Latin American Perspectives 29, 1 (2002): 38–60 and numerous other works by the same author; David Mares, “The national security state”, in: Thomas Holloway, ed., A Companion to Latin American History (London: Blackwell, 2011), 386–405.
- 24.
A publication of this kind is Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman, The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism: The Political Economy of Human Rights, vol. I (Montréal: Black Rose, 1979). U.S. dominance is discussed and disputed in Luc van Dongen, Stéphane Roulin, and Giles Scott-Smith, “Introduction”, in their Transnational Anticommunism: 1–19.
- 25.
See the chapter by Clemens Six on British Malaya and Indonesia; the chapter by Janis Nalbadidacis on Greece and Argentina; and the chapter by Ernesto Bohoslavsky and Magdalena Broquetas on Argentina and Uruguay.
- 26.
See Wang’s contribution in this volume (p. 363).
- 27.
For one example, Executive Order 9835 of 1947 in the USA, see Wippermann, Hetzjagd: 58. For guilt by association with certain communists in der Soviet Union during the 1930s, see the contribution by Wendy Goldman in this volume.
- 28.
Quoted in Julie Southwood and Patrick Flanagan, Indonesia: Law, Propaganda and Terror (London: Zed, 1983), 182. And see Alexander Keese’s chapter in this volume.
- 29.
See Eric Weitz, A Century of Genocide (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 73; Wendy Goldman’s chapter in this volume; Gerlach, Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth Century World (Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 41; Andreas Stergiou, „Der Antikommunismus in Griechenland“, Jahrbuch für Historische Kommunismusforschung (2011): 108. For the assassination of a son forcing his leftist father out of his home country Argentina, see Pion-Berlin, Ideology: 88.
- 30.
Ute Müller, „Über 300 000 gestohlene Babys: Erster Prozess zu organisiertem Kinderraub in Spanien“, Neue Zürcher Zeitung (27 June 2018): 6; Stefanie Schüler-Springorum, „Antikommunismus in Spanien“, Frei and Rigoll, eds., Antikommunismus: 181. See the chapters by Janis Nalbadidacis and Amaryllis Logotheti in this volume.
- 31.
Michael Richards, “Morality and biology in the Spanish Civil War: Psychiatrists, revolution and women prisoners in Málaga”, Contemporary European History 10, 3 (2001): 395–421; Javier Bandrés and Rafael Lavona, “Psychology in Franco’s concentration camps”, Psychology in Spain 1 (1997): 3–9.
- 32.
Minas Samatas, “A brief history of the anticommunist surveillance in Greece and its lasting impact”, in: Kees Boersma et al., eds., Histories of State Surveillance in Europe and Beyond (London and New York: Routledge, 2014), 50–55; for Iraq in 1938, see Tareq Ismael, The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Iraq (Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 26.
- 33.
South African History Online, https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/suppression-of-communism-act%2C-act-no-44-of-1950 (accessed 26 April 2019). For similar language in the Japanese Public Safety Maintenance Law of 1925, see the chapter by Kim Dong-Choon in this volume.
- 34.
Quoted in Fayet, “Reflections”: 10.
- 35.
See Bristol et al., Anatomie: 54 and A. Rumjanzew, „Statt eines Vorworts“, in: Antikommunismus – Feind der Menschheit: 5.
- 36.
Bristol, Anatomie: 98.
- 37.
„Bericht des Auslandskomitees der KPI zum 50. Jahrestag der Gründung der KPI“ (23 May 1970), German Federal Archives, DY 30 IVA2/20/1052, page 24 of the document.
- 38.
See the chapter by Wendy Goldman in this volume; furthermore, Wendy Goldman, Inventing the Enemy: Denunciations and Terror in Stalin’s Russia (Cambridge et al.: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 81–139; Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, „Antikommunismus im italienischen Faschismus“, in: Frei and Rigoll, Antikommunismus: 172.
- 39.
See, for example, on the Cultural Revolution in China Jean-Louis Margolin, “China: A Long March into Night”, in: Courteois et al., Black Book: 513–538; for Indonesia 1965–1966, see Christian Gerlach, Extremely: 56–66.
- 40.
Osti Guerrazzi, „Antikommunismus“: 171.
- 41.
See Dong-Choon Kim, “Forgotten war, forgotten massacres—The Korean War (1950–1953) as licensed mass killing”, Journal of Genocide Research 6, 4 (2004): 523–544.
- 42.
See the chapter by Ning Wang in this volume, who also points to violent factionalism within the CPCh before it took power in 1949.
- 43.
Margolin, “China”: 532. Members of the intelligentsia (including Communist Party functionaries and civil servants) were prominent among those targeted; on the other hand, for people belonging to the intelligentsia among the Red Guards, see Anita Chan, Stanley Rosen, and Jonathan Unger, “Students and class warfare: The social roots of Red Guard Conflict in Guangzhou (Canton)”, China Quarterly 83 (1980): 434. Thanks to Mirjam Wiedemar for pointing me to this publication.
- 44.
Concerning Paris, see John Merriman, Massacre: The Life and Death of the Paris Commune (New York: Basic Books, 2014).
- 45.
Luis Corvalán, Aus meinem Leben (Berlin [East]: Dietz, 1978), 107 (my translation from German, C.G.).
- 46.
Quoted in Ibu Marni, “I am a Leaf in the Storm”, Indonesia 47 (1989): 56.
- 47.
A. Lerumo [i.e. Michael Harmel], Fünfzig Jahre Kampf der Südafrikanischen Kommunistischen Partei 1921–1971 (Berlin [East]: Dietz: 1973), 160 (quote, retranslated from German, C.G.), 169.
- 48.
Emil Langer et al., Entwicklung und Kampf der kommunistischen Bewegung in Asien und Afrika (Berlin [East]: Dietz, 1980), 122. But see the contribution by Bernard D’Mello and Gautam Navlakha about India in this volume.
- 49.
Ismael, Rise and Fall, ix, 40, 79, 98, 102, 107–108, 112, 142, 201, 225–226. On the other hand, see ibid., 87 and 91 for mass killings supported and possibly committed by communists in Kirkuk in July 1959.
- 50.
Eva Siao, China – mein Traum, mein Leben (Bergisch Gladbach: Gustav Lübbe, 1990), 57–64, 301–364.
- 51.
See Ariel Dorfman, Kurs nach Süden, Blick nach Norden: Leben zwischen zwei Welten (Munich and Vienna: Europa, 1999).
- 52.
See Takiji Kobayashi, “March 15, 1928”, in: Heather Bowen-Struyk and Norma Field, eds., For Dignity, Justice and Revolution: An Anthology of Japanese Proletarian Literature (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 103–158; Takiji Kobayashi, “Life of a party member”, in: idem, The Crab Cannery Ship and Other Novels of Struggle (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2013), 221–293. For the context see Yoichi Komori, “Introduction”, in: Kobayashi, Crab Cannery Ship: 6 and 13, and Bowen-Struyk and Field, Dignity: 47, 103 and 329.
- 53.
See ibid.: 331 and 364.
- 54.
See the chapters by Elisa Kriza, Jan-Philipp Pomplun, Clemens Six, and Kim Dong-Choon in this volume.
- 55.
See Mark Curtis, “The massacres in Iraq, 1963”, 12 February 2007, available on Curtis’ webside, http://markcurtis.info/2007/02/12/the-massacres-in-iraq-1963/ and Gerlach, Extremely: 77–87.
- 56.
For such efforts, see Iris Schröder and Christian Methfessel, „Antikommunismus und Internationalismus“, in: Frei and Rigoll, Antikommunismus: 139–155.
- 57.
This becomes also clear from Giles Scott-Smith, Western Anti-Communism and the Interdoc Network: Cold War Internationale (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), despite the book’s subtitle. NATO did not play this role, see van Dongen et al., “Introduction”: 5. The Anti-Comintern Pact has yet to become subject to in-depth research. It was an aggressive alliance, but a loose one, and almost half of its members did not declare war on the Soviet Union during the pact’s existence (Bulgaria, Denmark, Japan, Manchukuo, Nanking China and Spain), although they pursued strongly anti-communist policies domestically.
- 58.
Ernst Henry, „Antikomintern Nr. 2“, in: Antikommunismus – Feind der Menschheit: 237–257. Henry referred to the Comité International d’Information et d’Action Sociale in Luxemburg, likening it to Jack London’s Iron Heel (237–238).
- 59.
Pierre Abramovici, “The world anti-communist league: Origins, structures and activities”, in: van Dongen et al., Transnational Anticommunism: 126–127.
- 60.
See Attila Pók, „Zur Genese des Antikommunismus in Ungarn“, in: Frei and Rigoll, Antikommunismus, 83.
- 61.
Giovanni Germanetto, Genosse Kupferbart: Erinnerungen eines Friseurs (Berlin [East]: Dietz, 1982 [first 1930]), 48. See also the chapters by Barbara Falk, Frank Jacob, and Elisa Kriza in this volume.
- 62.
See Radu, “Introduction”.
- 63.
By contrast, see the concept in Dieter Pohl, Verfolgung und Massenmord in der NS-Zeit 1933–1945 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003), 1.
- 64.
For example, „persecution“ is also a guiding term in several contributions in Claire Zalc and Tal Bruttman, eds., Microhistories of the Holocaust (London and New York: Berghahn, 2017).
- 65.
For this issue, see the chapters by Daniel Vallès Muñio and Barbara Falk in this volume.
- 66.
„Verordnung zur Sicherung der Verkehrswege in Weissruthenien gegen Banden- und Minengefahr“, 10 February 1944 (signed: von Gottberg), Amtsblatt des Generalkommissars in Minsk, 4 (1944): 83–84.
- 67.
Annemie Schaus and Anne Krywin, „Réflexions sur la répresssion légale du radicalisme politique“, in: Delwit and Gotowich, La peur: 215–225.
- 68.
One could say that the chapters by Wendy Goldman and Ning Wang about the USSR and the People’s Republic of China, respectively, are not about anti-communist persecutions per se (but in a way about persecutions of communists), because the persecutors did not combat communism as such, only certain understandings of it and ways of political action. However, as noted before, these cases share so many features with the others that they belong in this volume.
- 69.
The concept of a “Cold War,” hinting as it is at international conflict, high politics and politics in general, more recently enhanced with cultural aspects, but leading the gaze away from social conflict and everyday life, appears less than fruitful for this volume.
- 70.
See the chapters by Andrei Gomez-Suárez, Bernard D’Mello, and Gautam Navlakha, Christian Gerlach, Robbie Lieberman and Frank Jacob.
- 71.
See the chapters by Grace Leksana and Janis Nalbadidacis in this volume; for a regional study of Tucumán province in Argentina, see the chapter by James Shrader.
- 72.
See the chapters by Jan-Philipp Pomplun and Christian Gerlach in this volume.
- 73.
See the chapter by Barbara Falk in this volume and Landon Storrs, The Second Red Scare and the Unmaking of the New Deal Left (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2013). For this approach, see also the chapter by Elisa Kriza in this volume.
- 74.
See also Clemens Six’ conclusion to this collection.
- 75.
This failure may have to do with a tendency of some scholars to argue, pointedly put, that neither African communists nor anti-communists have existed. Not only do such studies tend to depict Marxism as external imposition on Africa (and thus to reject the view that regimes combating anticolonial insurgencies like in Portuguese Africa acted out of anti-communism), but they also deny that postcolonial opposition to Marxist regimes in Africa can be framed as anti-communist. Such opposition is instead being framed as traditionalist and tied to local social relations, especially in the rural sphere. Tendencies of such essentialist de-politization are, for example, apparent in Justin Pearce, Political Identity and Conflict in Central Angola, 1975–2002 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015) and in some instances, but not throughout, in Radu, “Introduction”. By contrast, see Jessica Schafer, “Guerrillas and violence in the war in Mozambique: De-socialization or re-socialization?“, African Affairs 100 (2001): 215–237. See also her Soldiers at Peace: Veterans and Society After the Civil War in Mozambique (New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
- 76.
See Adolphi, „Kommunistenverfolgung“: 1334, 1344–1346, 1349 and the issue „Realsozialistische Kommunistenverfolgung“, Utopie kreativ 81/82 (1997): 50–168, for the most part produced by Marxist authors.
- 77.
One might add that explanations of political terror in socialist countries as working merely top-down can be disputed, too. This point is being discussed in the chapters by Wendy Lower and Ning Wang in this volume.
- 78.
Stergiou, „Antikommunismus“: 118.
- 79.
Josef Foschepoth, Überwachtes Deutschland: Post- und Telefonüberwachung in der alten Bundesrepublik (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2012), 117.
- 80.
For Greece, including the Metaxas dictatorship 1936–1941, see also Samatas, “A Brief History”: 49–65.
- 81.
Ernest Kolman, „Die ideologischen ‚Trümpfe‘ des Antikommunismus“, in: Antikommunismus – Feind der Menschheit: 261. On the nineteenth century, see also Dominik Rigoll, „Antikommunismus vor 1917? Eine Skizze“, in: Frei and Rigoll, Antikommunismus: 32–48; Dominique Lejeune, La peur du „rouge“ en France (Paris: Belin, 2003): 7–111.
- 82.
See Germanetto, Genosse: 164–249 about Italy 1922–1926; Hofmann, Soziologie: 6 about the Federal Republic of Germany after 1968.
- 83.
Writing about the 1960s, Beyer estimated that there were about 10,000 political cases in the Federal Republic of Germany annually, but only about 150 sentences. See Beyer, Wesen: 57.
- 84.
For communism being associated with Jews in South America, see the chapter by Ernesto Bohoslavsky and Magdalena Broquetas on Argentina and Uruguay in this volume. For anti-communist persecutions primarily targeting Chinese in British Malaya, see the chapter by Clemens Six.
- 85.
For Argentina, see James Shraders contribution in this volume.
- 86.
Lerumo, Fünfzig Jahre: 90 and 93.
- 87.
Memo by William Sullivan, Domestic Intelligence chief, FBI, to Alan Belmont, Assistant Director, FBI (30 August 1963), faksimile in, http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/king/images/fbifiles/other/full/10.jpg (accessed 18 September 2018). For more on suspicions concerning King, see also Robbie Lieberman’s chapter in this volume.
- 88.
See the contributions by Robbie Lieberman, Alexander Keese, and Clemens Six in this volume.
- 89.
See Gerlach, Extremely: 177–234; Patricia Colombo, „Réménagements territoriaux, contrôle des populations et strategiés contre-insurrectionelles“, Critique internationale 79 (2018): 9–24.
- 90.
See also Patricia Colombo, „Construire (dans) les marges de l’État, entre politiques de „développement“ et stratégies de contre-insurrections (Chaco, Argentine, 1976–1980)“, Critique internationale 79 (2018): 85–108.
- 91.
For ethno-racialized and religious aspects of such strategies in general, see also Christian Gerlach, “Sustainable violence: Mass resettlement, strategic villages, and militias in anti-guerrilla warfare”, in: Richard Bessel and Claudia Haake, eds., Removing Peoples: Forced Removal in the Modern World (Oxford et al.: Oxford University Press, 2009), 361–393; for the case of Malaya, see Clemens Six, Secularism, Decolonisation, and the Cold War in South and Southeast Asia (London and New York: Routledge, 2018): 124–163.
- 92.
Andreas Stucki, Violence and Gender in Africa’s Iberian Colonies (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 67–123.
- 93.
See also Hilmar Farid, „Indonesia’s original sin: Mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66“, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 6, 1 (2005): 3–16.
- 94.
Mares, “National Security State”: 386–405.
- 95.
Pion-Berlin, Ideology: 98.
- 96.
For example, see van Dongen et al., Transnational Anticommunism.
- 97.
Bela Bodo, “Hungarian aristocracy and the white terror”, Journal of Contemporary History 45, 4 (2010): 703–724. For the factory, see also Goldman, Inventing.
- 98.
David Pion-Berlin and George Lopez, “Of victims and executioners: Argentine state terror, 1975–1979”, International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991): 63–86, esp. 75–82.
- 99.
Storrs, Second Red Scare: 194.
- 100.
Michael Rohrwasser, Der Stalinismus und die Renegaten: Die Literatur der Exkommunisten (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1991): 52–55, 263 (quote).
- 101.
Gabriel Almond, The Appeal of Communism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954): 354, 357, 401. The study was about samples from the USA, Britain, France and Italy.
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Gerlach, C. (2020). Introduction: Anti-Communist Persecutions in the Twentieth Century. In: Gerlach, C., Six, C. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Anti-Communist Persecutions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54963-3_1
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