Abstract
This chapter engages the long Islamic intellectual tradition on ‘the concept of death’ epistemologically, metaphysically, and from ethico-legal and theological perspectives. There are several pragmatic implications of death for Muslims that go beyond simply harvesting organs for transplantation and withdrawing life support. There are many gaps in the statements from the Islamic religious legal bodies pertaining to declaring medical death. The questions of what it is to be alive, to be human, and to be a person have not been adequately or systematically addressed in a way that allows us to see them not only as part of the majority Sunni intellectual theological tradition but also to place the Islamic take on these questions in a coherent bioethical dialogue with both scientific and philosophical enquiry. In this chapter, I will explore the relationship between body, soul and mind, to articulate Islamic theological traditional responses addressing notions of human personhood and how they fare at the crossroads between science and Islam. The aim is to support an understanding of how the ‘concept of death’ can be pragmatically and medically identified from an Islamic perspective.
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Notes
- 1.
DeGrazia (2017).
- 2.
There may be some slight variants to these, but essentially these three broad accounts sum up all.
- 3.
Two sets of criteria for the diagnosis of brain death have been accepted. The first is the landmark Harvard code-of-practice definition for ‘whole-brain’ death with the requirement for ancillary testing in addition to contemporary criteria. The second is the original UK criteria of the irreversible loss of the capacity to breathe, combined with the irreversible loss of the capacity for consciousness satisfied through the loss of brainstem function. See Wijdicks (2001): 1215–21; Pallis and Harley (1996).
- 4.
DeGrazia (2017).
- 5.
- 6.
Bedir and Aksoy (2011): 290–294.
- 7.
Al-Wāʿī (1987): 255.
- 8.
Jackson (2003).
- 9.
Al-Āmidī (1984), 4:396.
- 10.
Al-Saʿīdān (n.d.), 4.
- 11.
- 12.
- 13.
- 14.
He was a prominent Islamic scholar and jurist who lived in the city of Damascus during the Ottoman era. He was an authority of the Ḥanafī school of Islamic law. His most famous work was Radd al-muḥtār (The Response to the Baffled), which is still considered the authoritative text of Ḥanafī fiqh.
- 15.
Ibn ʿĀbidīn (1994), 1:275.
- 16.
Al-Saʿīdān (n.d.).
- 17.
- 18.
It should be noted that the terms nafs (soul) and rūḥ (spirit) are used interchangeably in the Qur’an, generally referring to the soul. The former may also mean ‘self,’ ‘blood’ and ‘living body,’ while the latter may also mean ‘physical breath’ or even ‘wind.’ To avoid confusion, I translate both as ‘soul.’
- 19.
- 20.
Qur’an 17:85 (al-Isrāʾ).
- 21.
- 22.
Qur’an 6:93 (al-Anʿām).
- 23.
- 24.
Qur’an 39:42 (al-Zumar).
- 25.
See Qur’an 39:42 (al-Zumar) and 6:60 (al-Anʿām).
- 26.
- 27.
Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī considered to be the mujaddid (reviver) of his age, a Sunnī, Shāfiʿī jurist, Ashʿarī theologian, philosopher, and Ṣūfī master of Persian descent. His major work, the Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), was well-received universally by Islamic scholars such as al-Nawawī (d. 676/1277) who famously remarked, ‘Were the books of Islam all to be lost, except the Iḥyāʾ, it would suffice to replace them all.’ See Lumbard (2009), 291.
- 28.
Al-Ghazālī (2005), 1840.
- 29.
Shams al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr al-Zurʿī al-Dimashqī al-Ḥanbalī, commonly known as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya. He was an important Sunnī medieval Islamic jurisconsult, theologian, and spiritual writer, belonging to the Ḥanbalī school of orthodox Sunnī jurisprudence, of which he is regarded as ‘one of the most important thinkers.’ See Livingston (1971), 96–103.
- 30.
Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1994), 288–289.
- 31.
- 32.
This is also the Platonic conception of the soul. Plato (d. ca. 347 BC) in his Phaedo presents a dualist account of the soul, with a disembodied soul, or mind (psyche), with the person. See Phaedo, in Plato (1980), 63e-69e.
- 33.
For a fuller account of the soul in the Islamic tradition, see for example, Chap. 7, ‘Where the Two Oceans Meet: The Theology of Islam and the Philosophy of Psychiatric Medicine in Exploring the Human Self,’ by Asim Yusuf and Afifi al-Akiti in this book.
- 34.
He claims, ‘The human soul is material but differs in quiddity (al-māhiyya) from the sensible body, being a body that is luminous, elevated, light, alive, and in motion. It penetrates the substance of the bodily organs, flowing therein in the way water flows in roses, oil in olives, and fire in charcoal,’ in Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (2014), 1:85.
- 35.
- 36.
Laureys et al. (2009), 2:1133–1142.
- 37.
Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī, known as Rhazes to Europeans, was born in Rayy, a Persian city near present-day Tehran. He was one of the most important and influential of all medieval Islamic physicians. He wrote on many different subjects related to medicine, ethics, and philosophy. His Kitāb al-Ḥāwī fī al-ṭibb (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine) was assembled by his students after his death and is preserved today. For more, see Adamson (2017), 63–82
- 38.
Al-Attas (1995), 143–176.
- 39.
Ibid., 170–176.
- 40.
Except maybe some voluntary regulatory role in changing circumstances through an overriding mechanism.
- 41.
There is a difference of opinion amongst Muslim scholars about when ensoulment occurs in the foetus. This is based on interpretations and acceptance of different Prophetic traditions which indicate 40–42 days in accordance to some ḥadīths and 120 days according to others, where the total of three consecutive 40 days add up to 120 days. For a discussion of the controversy surrounding the various ensoulment periods in the Muslim tradition, see Chap. 6, ‘When Does a Human Foetus Become Human?’ by Hamza Yusuf in this book.
- 42.
- 43.
Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1994), 288–9.
- 44.
Note that embryological staging in the Qur’an begins at conception which is at fertilization. However gestational age (GA) is counted from the first day of the menstrual period, which is 14 days before conception/fertilization, and this is generally considered the earliest time for fertilization. Therefore, according to dating from the Islamic theological perspective, 40 days would be counted as 54 days gestation.
- 45.
A useful resource is Hill (2021).
- 46.
This is due to extensive and irreversible brain damage, as opposed to a coma, which is a state of unconsciousness. Note the use of ‘permanent’ vegetative state rather than ‘persistent.’ The latter is potentially reversible, while the former is not.
- 47.
Laureys et al. (2010): 1–4.
- 48.
Most PVS patients are unresponsive to external stimuli, but their condition may be associated with different levels of consciousness. Some level of consciousness means a person can still respond in varying degrees to stimulation, though involuntarily as in the minimally conscious state (MCS). People in MCS display severe altered consciousness but can demonstrate some evidence of conscious awareness and higher-brain functioning. See Giacino et al. (2002): 349–353.
- 49.
The term ‘death behaviours’ has been borrowed from Veatch, who says that some behaviours traditionally associated with death can be unbundled, but also that other behaviours (including organ procurement) must continue to be associated with death. See Veatch (2005): 353–378.
Death behaviours in the Islamic tradition would include ritual acts/practices performed after death is announced, such as initiation of the three-day ritual mourning, ritual washing, shrouding, the funeral prayers, burial, distribution of inheritance, and all other associated actions after death.
- 50.
- 51.
Al-Zarkashī (1982–5), 29:150.
- 52.
Examples of mawt ḥukmī include cases when someone has been missing for some time and a judge determines that s/he has died, i.e., presumptive death with high probability, which permits rulings of death to proceed. See al-Kharashī (1975), 2:145; al-Mardāwī (1955-8), 9:141; Ibn Nujaym (1997), 8:335; Yāsīn (1991), 413.
- 53.
- 54.
DeGrazia (2017).
- 55.
Veatch and Ross (2016), 37–49.
- 56.
Laureys (2005): 899–909.
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Rashid, R. (2022). The Intersection between Science and Sunnī Theological and Legal Discourse in Defining Medical Death. In: al-Akiti, A., Padela, A.I. (eds) Islam and Biomedicine. Philosophy and Medicine, vol 137. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53801-9_9
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