Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Fathers and Their Very Young Children: Future Directions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Fathers and Child Development

Abstract

The biological underpinnings of paternal caregiving derive from the requirements of highly evolved complex organisms and their needs for both extended care and care that adapts to the changing competencies of children as they move from infancy to adulthood. The biological presses that underpin paternal care for children connect to broader survival and reproductive requirements than involve cooperation with other caregivers and the affordances of both the micro and macro environments. Such processes are under exceptional challenge given the rapidly evolving landscape of daily life, the world of work, and family composition. Research must adapt to consider all these factors and to respect the fact that paternal caregiving extends further and further into the adulthood of offspring. Evaluating the quality of paternal behavior during the early childhood must, therefore, look not only to how it promotes well-being during childhood but how it promotes well-being over the life course. Likewise, evaluating the quality of the father-child relationship during early childhood must consider how the quality during the early years promotes father-offspring relationship quality over the life course.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abraham, E., Hendler, T., Shapira-Lichter, I., Kanat-Maymon, Y., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2014). Father’s brain is sensitive to childcare experiences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 111, 9792–9797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adamasons, K., & Pasley, K. (2016). Parents’ fathering identity standards and later father involvement. Journal of Family Issues, 37, 221–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahnert, L., Teufl, L., Ruiz, N., Piskernik, B., Supper, B., Remiorz, S., et al. (2017). Father-child play during the preschool years and child internalizing behaviors: Between robustness and vulnerability. Infant Mental Health Journal, 38, 243–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AICPA. (2017). 2017 CPA firm gender survey. Available at: https://www.aicpa.org/content/dam/aicpa/career/womenintheprofession/downloadabledocuments/wiec-2017-cpa-firm-gender-survey-brochure.pdf

  • Akhtar, S., & Samuel, S. (1996). The concept of identity developmental origins, phenomenology, clinical relevance and measurement. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 3, 254–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Algood, S., Beckert, T., & Peterson, C. (2012). The role of father involvement in the perceived psychological well-being of young adult daughters: A retrospective study. North American Journal of Psychiatry, 14, 95–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali, A., & Daoud, F. (2016). Early father-daughter relationship and demographic determinants of spousal marital satisfaction. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 9, 61–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allendorf, K. (2012). Like daughter, like son? Fertility decline and the transformation of gender systems in the family. Demographic Research, 27, 429–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. (2015, December). Stepfamily problems. Available at: https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Stepfamily-Problems-027.aspx

  • American Academy of Pediatrics. (2016). Healthy digital media use habits for babies, toddlers, and preschoolers. Available at: https://www.healthychildren.org/English/family-life/Media/Pages/Healthy-Digital-Media-Use-Habits-for-Babies-Toddlers-Preschoolers.aspx

  • Barnett, M. A., Deng, M., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Willoughby, M., & Cox, M. (2008). Interdependence of parenting of mothers and fathers of infants. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 561–573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belch, M. A., & Willis, L. A. (2002). Family decision at the turn of the century: Has the changing structure of households impacted the family decision-making process? Journal of Consumer Behavior, 2, 111–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonafide, C., Lacalio, A., Ferro, D., Orenstein, M., Jamison, D., Lavanchy, C., et al. (2018). Accuracy of pulse oximetry-based home baby monitors. JAMA, 320, 717–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonds, D., & Gondoli, D. M. (2007). Examining the process by which marital adjustment affects maternal warmth: The role of coparenting support as a mediator. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 288–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bosoni, M. L. (2014). “Breadwinners” or “involved fathers?” men, fathers and work in Italy. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 45, 293–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bouchard, G., Lee, C. M., Asgary, V., & Pelletier, L. (2007). Fathers’ motivation of involvement with their children: A self-determination theory perspective. Fathering, 5, 25–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bozzola, E., Spina, G., Ruggiero, M., Memo, L., Agostiniani, R., Bossola, M., et al. (2018). Media devices in pre-school children: The recommendations of the Italian Pediatric Society. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 44, 69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronte-Tinkew, J., Carrano, J., Horowitz, A., & Kinukawa, A. (2008). Involvement among resident fathers and links to infant cognitive outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 29, 1211–1244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brotherson, S. E., Yamamoto, T., & Acock, A. A. (2003). Connection and communication in father-chid relationships and adolescent child well-being. Fathering, 1, 191–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. (2017). Average hours per day spent caring for and helping household children as their main activity. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/charts/american-time-use/activity-by-parent.htm

  • Burns, J. C., & Caldwell, C. H. (2016). Breaking the ice! Predictors about communication between nonresident African American fathers and sons about sex. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 28, 84–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burrell, A., Ives, J., & Freudtner, G. (2017). The experiences of fathers who have offspring with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 1135–1147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cabrera, N. J., Fitzgerald, H. E., Bradley, R. H., & Roggman, L. (2014). Father’s influences on their children: An expanded model. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 6, 336–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • CAF (Contact A Family). (2005). Fathers factsheet. London: Contact a Family. Available at: http://www.cafamily.org.uk/fathers.html

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, C., Wright, J., Zimmerman, M., Walsemann, K., Williams, D., & Isichei, P. (2004). Enhancing adolescent health behaviors through strengthening non-resident father-son relationships: Model for intervention with African-American families. Health Education Research, 19, 644–656.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, C. H., Antonakos, C. L., Assari, S., Kruger, D., Loney, E. H., & Njai, R. (2014). Pathways to prevention: Improving nonresident African American fathers’ parenting skills and behaviors to reduce sons’ aggression. Child Development, 85, 308–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, B., & Towers, C. (2008). Recognising fathers: The needs of fathers of children with disabilities. Support for Learning, 23, 118–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, K. W., Mollen, C. J., Aldridge, S., Hexem, K. R., & Feudtner, C. (2012). Influences on decision making identified by parents of children receiving pediatric palliative care. AJOB Primary Research, 3(1), 1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, B. M., Lombardi, C. M., Thomson, D., Nguyen, H. N., Paz, M., Theriault, C. A., et al. (2018). Maternal support of children’s early numerical concept learning predicts preschool and first-grade math achievement. Child Development, 89, 156–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Center on Media and Human Development, Northwestern University. (2014, June). Parenting in the age of digital technology. Available at: https://cmhd.northwestern.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/ParentingAgeDigitalTechnology.REVISED.FINAL_.2014.pdf

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Health, United States, 2017 – data finder. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/hus/contents2017.htm?search=,Child_and_adolescent

  • Cherlin, A. J. (2014). Labor’s love lost. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, E., Kuo, D. Z., Agrawal, R., Berry, J. G., Bhagat, S. K., Simon, T. D., et al. (2011). Children with medical complexity: An emerging population for clinical and research initiatives. Pediatrics, 127, 529–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Common Sense Media. (2016). Technology addiction: Concern, controversy, and finding balance. Available at: https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/technology-addiction-concern-controversy-and-finding-balance

  • Corwyn, R. F., & Bradley, R. H. (2016). Fathers’ autonomy support and social competence of sons and daughters. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 62, 359–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. (2008). Changing attitudes toward the male breadwinner, female homemaker family model: Influences of women’s employment and education over the lifecourse. Social Forces, 87, 299–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daly, K. J., Ashbourne, L., & Brown, J. L. (2012). A reorientation of worldview: Children’s influence on fathers. Journal of Family Issues, 34, 1401–1424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darling, C. A., Senatore, N., & Strachan, J. (2011). Fathers of children with disabilities: Stress and life satisfaction. Stress and Health, 28, 269–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, E. F., Shoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Mangelsdorf, S. C., & Brown, G. L. (2009). The role of infant temperament in stability and change in coparenting across the first year of life. Parenting: Science and Practice, 9, 143–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Cock, E. S., Henrichs, J., Vreeswijk, C. M., Maas, A. J., Rijk, C. H., & van Bakel, H. J. (2015). Continuous feelings of love: The parental bond from pregnancy to toddlerhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 125–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Graaf, J. V., Hoogenboom, M., De Roos, S., & Bucz, F. (2018). Socio-demographic correlates of fathers’ and mothers’ parenting behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 2315–2327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deaux, K., & Martin, D. (2003). Interpersonal networks and social categories: Specifying levels of context in identity processes. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66, 101–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Domingo, P., Holmes, R., O’Neil, T., Jones, N., Bird, K., Larson, A., et al. (2015). Women’s voice and leadership in decision-making: Assessing the evidence. London: ODI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donnelly, K., Twenge, J. M., Clark, M. A., Shaikh, S. K., Beiler-May, A., & Carter, N. T. (2016). Attitudes towards women’s work and family roles in the United States, 1976-2013. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 41–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dworkin, J., Connell, J., & Doty, J. (2013). A literature of parents’ online behavior. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 7(2), 2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dyches, T. T., Smith, T. B., Korth, B. B., Roper, S. O., & Mandleco, B. (2012). Positive parenting of children with developmental disabilities: A meta-analysis. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33, 2213–2230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eliason, S. R., Mortimer, J. T., & Vuolo, M. (2015). The transition to adulthood: Life course structures and subjective perceptions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 78, 205–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, N. B., Bishop, D., Ryan, C., Miller, I., & Keitner, G. (1993). The McMaster model view of healthy family functioning. In F. Walsh (Ed.), Normal family processes (pp. 138–160). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett, T. N., Baggaley, S. E., Wu, C., Whyte, D. A., & Martinson, I. M. (2005). Parental responses to health care services for children with chronic conditions and their families: A comparison between Hong Kong and Scotland. Journal of Child Health Care, 9, 8–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feinberg, M., & Kan, M. (2008). Establishing family foundations: Intervention effects on coparenting, parent/infant well-being, and parent-child relations. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 253–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, R., & StGeorge, J. (2011). Heading into fatherhood-nervously: Support for fathering from online dads. Qualitative Health Research, 21, 1101–1114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2002). What predicts good relationships with parents in adolescence and partners in adult life? Findings from the 1958 British cohort study. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 186–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., & Jurist, E. L. (2002). Target M: Affect regulation, mentalization, and the development of the self. New York: Other Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, G., & Bruce, C. (2001). Conditional fatherhood: Identity theory and parental investment theory as alternative sources of explanation of fathering. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 394–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, G. L., Nordquist, V. M., Billen, R. M., & Savoca, E. F. (2015). Father involvement and early intervention: Effects of empowerment and father role identity. Family Relations, 64, 461–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Futon Critic. (2017, March). Ratings. Available at: http://www.thefutoncritic.com/ratings/2017/03/28/24-hour-disney-junior-channel-celebrates-4-years-at-number-1-turbocharged-by-mickey-and-the-roadster-racers-745410/20170328disney01/

  • Gaertner, B., Spinrad, T., Eisenberg, N., & Greving, K. (2007). Parental childrearing attitudes as correlates of father involvement during infancy. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 962–976.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • GBD 2017 Child and Adolescent Health Collaborators. (2019). Diseases, injuries, and risk factors in child and adolescent health, 1990 to 2017. Findings from the global burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors 2017 study. JAMA Pediatrics, 173, E1–E17. Available at: https://jamanetwork.com/

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2000). Evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 55–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gettler, L. T. (2016). Becoming DADS: Considering the role of cultural context and developmental plasticity for paternal socioendocrinology. Current Anthropology, 57(Supplement 13), S38–S55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, H. C., Costarino, T., Stayer, S. A., Brett, C., Cladis, F., & Davis, P. J. (2015). Outcomes for extremely premature infants. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 120, 1337–1351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goble, L. A. (2004). The impact of a child’s chronic illness on fathers. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 27, 153–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, W. A., Prause, J., Lucas-Thompson, R., & Himsel, A. (2008). Maternal employment and children’s achievement in context: A meta-analysis of four decades of research. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 77–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J. S. (2002). The role of fathers in the lives of their sons and daughters with mental illness. In B. J. Kramer & E. H. Thompson (Eds.), Men as caregivers: Theory, research, and service implications (pp. 269–293). New York: Springer Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ha, J., Greenberg, J. S., & Seltzer, M. M. (2011). Parenting a child with a disability: The role of social support for African American parents. Families in Society, 92, 405–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ha, J., Hong, J., Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (2008). Age and gender differences in the well-being of midlife and aging parents with children with mental health or developmental problems: Report of a national study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49, 301–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagmann, P., Cammoun, L., Gigandet, X., Meuli, R., Honey, X., Wedeen, V., et al. (2008). Mapping the structural core of human cerebral cortex. PLoS Biology, 6(7), e159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halpern, D. F., Benbow, C. P., Geary, D. C., Gur, R. C., Hyde, J. S., & Gernsbacher, M. A. (2007). The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 8, 1–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hare, B. (2011). From hominoid to hominid mind: What changed and why? Annual Review of Anthropology, 40, 293–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, B., Fraone, J. S., & Lee, J. (2017). The new dad: The career-caregiving conflict. Center for Work and Family – Report, Boston College. Available at: http://www.thenewdad.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/BCCWF_The_New_Dad_2017.163104025.pdf

  • Hartley, S. L., Papp, L. M., & Bolt, D. (2018). Spillover of marital interactions with parenting stress in families of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 47(Supplement 1), S88–S99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, J., Noyes, J., & Sloper, P. (2005). Families’ experience of caring for technology-dependent children: A temporal perspective. Health & Social Care in the Community, 13, 441–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heiman, T. (2002). Parents of children with disabilities: Resilience, coping, and future expectations. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 14, 159–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henley, K., & Pasley, K. (2005). Conditions affecting the association between father identity and father involvement. Fathering, 3, 59–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, J., Waldfogel, J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Han, W.-J. (2005). Maternal employment and child development: A fresh look using newer methods. Developmental Psychology, 41, 833–850.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hitlin, S. (2003). Values as the core of personal identity: Drawing links between two theories of self. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66, 118–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holland, A., & McElwain, N. (2013). Maternal and paternal perceptions of coparenting as a link between marital quality and the parent–toddler relationship. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 117–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hovey, J. K. (2005). Fathers parenting chronically ill children: Concerns and coping strategies. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 28, 83–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hrdy, S. B. (1999). Mother nature: A history of mothers, infants, and natural selection. New York: Pantheon Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hsin, A., & Felfe, C. (2014). When does time matter? Maternal employment, children’s time with parents, and child development. Demography, 51, 1867–1894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchison, J., Lyons, I., & Ansari, D. (2019). More similar than different: Gender differences in children’s basic numerical skills are the exception not the rule. Child Development, 90, e66–e79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • INED. (2013). Developed countries data base. Available at: http://ined.fr/en/pop_figures/developed_countries_database/

  • Joussemet, M., Landry, R., & Koestner, R. (2008). A self-determination theory perspective on parenting. Canadian Psychology, 49, 194–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kabali, H., Irigoyen, M., Nunez-Davis, R., Budacki, J., Mohanty, S., Leister, K., et al. (2015). Exposure and use of mobile media devices by young children. Pediatrics, 136, 1044–1050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., Griskevicius, V., Becker, D. V., & Schaller, M. (2010). Goal-driven cognition and functional behavior: The fundamental-motives framework. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 63–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kersey, A., Braham, E., Scumitta, K., Libertus, M., & Cantlon, J. (2018). No intrinsic gender differences in children’s earliest numerical abilities. NPJ Science of Learning, 2018(3), 12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, P., Rigo, P., Leckman, J. F., Mayes, L. C., Cole, P. M., Feldman, R., et al. (2015). A prospective study of perceived infant outcomes at 18-24 months: Neural and psychological correlates of parental thoughts and actions assessed during the first month postpartum. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. N, Wyatt, T. H., Li, X., & Gaylord, M. (2016). Use of social media by fathers of premature infants. Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing, 34, 359–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S. B. (2014). Sameness and the self: Philosophical and psychological considerations. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knafl, K., & Zoeller, L. (2000). Childhood chronic illness: A comparison of mothers’ and fathers’ experiences. Journal of Family Nursing, 6, 287–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohn, M. (1963). Social class and parent–child relationships: An interpretation. The American Journal of Sociology, 68, 471–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreyenfeld, M. (2015). Maternal and paternal employment across the life course. In R. Scott & S. Kosslyn (Eds.), Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 1–15). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, J., Martinussen, M., & Marcia, J. E. (2010). Identity change during adolescence and young adulthood: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 683–698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krupenye, C., Kano, F., Hirata, S., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2016). Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs. Science, 354(6308), 110–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuczynski, L., & Parkin, C. M. (2009). Pursuing a dialectical perspective on transaction: Social relational theory of micro family processes. In A. Sameroff (Ed.), The transactional model of development: How children and contexts shape each other (pp. 247–268). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo, D. Z., Houtrow, A. J., & Council on Children with Disabilities. (2016). Recognition and management of medical complexity. Pediatrics, 138(6), e20163021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo, D. Z., Lyle, R. E., Casey, P. M., & Stille, C. J. (2017). Care system redesign for preterm children after discharge from the NICU. Pediatrics, 139(4), e2016162969.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kurzweil, R. (2005). The singularity is near: When humans transcend biology. London: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M., & Lewis, C. (2010). The development and significance of father-child relationships in two-parent families. In M. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (5th ed., pp. 94–153). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (1975). Fathers: Forgotten contributors to child development. Human Development, 18, 245–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamela, D., & Figueriredo, B. (2016). Coparenting after marital dissolution and children’s mental health: A systematic review. Jornal de Pediatria, 92, 331–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latham, R. M., Mark, K. M., & Oliver, B. R. (2018). Coparenting and children’s disruptive behavior: Interacting processes for parenting sense of competence. Journal of Family Psychology, 32, 151–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levni, E., & Kopf, D. (2017, October). The decline of the large US family, in charts. https://qz.com/1099800/average-size-of-a-us-family-from-1850-to-the-present/

  • Lewis, M. D. (2000). The promise of dynamic systems approaches for an integrated account of human development. Child Development, 71, 36–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg, S. M., Hyde, J. S., Petersen, J. L., & Linn, M. C. (2010). New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1123–1135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Livingston, G., & Parker, K. (2019, June 12). 8 facts about American dads. In Pew Research Center, FACTANK. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/12/fathers-day-facts/

  • Livingston, G., & Bialik, K. (2018, May). 7 facts about U.S. moms. Pew Research Center, FACTANK. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/05/10/facts-about-u-s-mothers/

  • Long, K., & Marsland, A. (2011). Family adjustment to childhood cancer: A systematic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 57–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lonsdorf, E. H., Ross, S. R., & Matsuzawa, T. (2010). The mind of the chimpanzee: Ecological and experimental perspectives. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Luz, R., George, A., Vieux, R., & Spitz, E. (2017). Antenatal determinants of parental attachment and parenting alliance: How do mothers and fathers differ? Infant Mental Health Journal, 38, 183–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madrigal, A. (2018, November). Raised by YouTube. The Atlantic. Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/11/raised-by-youtube/570838/

  • Mahone, E., & Denckla, M. (2017). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A historical neuropsychological perspective. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 23, 916–929.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, J., Bun, L. B., & McHale, S. M. (2009). Family patterns of gender role attitudes. Sex Roles, 61, 221–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mascaro, J., Renscher, K., Hackett, P., Mehl, M., & Rilling, J. (2017). Child gender influence paternal behavior, language, and brain function. Behavioral Neuroscience, 131, 262–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maurer, T. W., Pleck, J. H., & Rane, T. E. (2003). Methodological considerations in measuring paternal identity. Fathering, 1, 117–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J., Bauer, B., Sood, A., Limburg, P. J., Goodin, T., & Malleret, T. (2018). Wellness in the age of the smartphone. Available from the Global Wellness Institute at: https://www.globalwellnessinstitute.org/global-wellness-institute-blog/2018/4/10/new-report-wellness-in-the-age-of-the-smartphone

  • McDaniel, B. T., Teti, D. M., & Feinberg, M. E. (2018). Predicting coparenting quality in daily life in mothers and fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 32, 904–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGaughey, W. (2002). World civilization identified with five epochs of history. Comparative Civilizations Review, 46, 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • McHale, J. P., & Coates, E. E. (2014). Observed coparenting and triadic dynamics in African American fragile families at 3 months postpartum. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35, 435–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMunn, A., Martin, P., Kelly, Y., & Sacker, A. (2017). Fathers’ involvement: Correlates and consequences for child socioemotional behavior in the United Kingdom. Journal of Family Issues, 38, 1109–1131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milkie, M. A., Nomaguchi, K. M., & Denny, K. E. (2015). Does the amount of time mothers spend with children or adolescents matter? Journal of Marriage and Family, 77, 355–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mora-Bermudez, F., Badsha, F., Kanton, S., Camp, J. G., Vernot, B., Kohler, K., et al. (2016). Differences and similarities between human and chimpanzee neural progenitors during cerebral cortex development. eLife, 5, e18683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morman, M. T., & Floyd, K. (2002). A “changing culture of fatherhood”: Effects on affectionate communication, closeness, and satisfaction in men’s relationships with their fathers and their sons. Western Journal of Communication, 66, 395–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, C., Stanton, M., Lonsdorf, E., Wroblewski, E., & Pusey, A. (2016). Chimpanzee fathers bias their behavior towards their offspring. Royal Society Open Science, 3, 160441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2015). Mental disorders and disabilities among low-income children. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Parenting matters: Supporting parents of children ages 0–8. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Information technology and the U.S. workforce. Where are we and where do we go from here? Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Cancer Institute. (2019). Cancer in children and adolescents. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/childhood-cancers/child-adolescent-cancers-fact-sheet

  • Neil-Urban, S., & Jones, J. (2002). Father-to-father support: Fathers of children with cancer share their experience. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 19, 97–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. A., & O’Brien, M. (2012). Does unplanned pregnancy have long-term implications for mother-child relationships? Journal of Family Issues, 33, 506–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niela-Vilen, H., Axelin, A., Salantera, S., & Melender, H. (2014). Internet-based peer support for parents: Systematic integrative review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 51, 1524–1537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, L. (2017). Re-examining the research on parental conflict, coparenting, and custody arrangements. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23, 211–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nikken, P. (2019). Parents’ instrumental use of media in childrearing: Relationships with confidence in parenting, and health and conduct problems in children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 531–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nouwen, M., JafariNaimi, N., & Zaman, B. (2017). Parental controls: Reimagining technologies for parent-child interaction. In Proceedings of 15th European conference on computer-supported cooperative work – exploratory papers. Reports of the European Society for Socially Embedded Technologies (ISSN 2510-2591)

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunes, S., Fite, J. E., Patera, K. J., & French, J. A. (2001). Interactions among paternal behavior, steroid hormones, and parental experience in male marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii). Hormones and Behavior, 39, 70–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nunes-Costa, R., Figueriredo, B., & Maya-Albiol, L. (2016). The state of art of biological processes in paternal care. Psychology/Psicologia Reflexao e Critica, 27, 794–805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2016). OECE Family Database, SF1.1: Family size and household composition. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/els/family/SF_1_1_Family_size_and_composition.pdf

  • OECD. (2018). OECD Family Database, SR3.1: Marriage and divorce rates. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/social/family/SF_3_1_Marriage_and_divorce_rates.pdf

  • Olah, L. S., Kotowska, I. E., & Richter, R. (2018). The new roles of men and women and implications for families and societies. In G. Doblhammer & J. Guma (Eds.), A demographic perspective on gender, family and health in Europe (pp. 41–64). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Opondo, C., Redshaw, M., Savage-McGlynn, E., & Quigley, M. A. (2016). Father involvement in early child-rearing and behavioural outcomes in their pre-adolescent children: Evidence from the ALSPACK UK birth cohort. BMJ Open, 6, e012034.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ortiz-Ospina, E., Tzvetkova, S., & Roser, M. (2018). Female labor supply. Our World Data. Available at: https://ourworldindata.org/female-labor-supply

  • Palkovitz, R., Fagan, J., & Hull, J. (2013). Coparenting and children’s well-being. In N. J. Cabrera & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 202–219). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palkovitz, R., & Hull, J. (2018). Toward a resource theory of fathering. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 10, 181–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, K., & Stepler, R. (2017, September). Americans see men as the financial providers, even as women’s contributions grow. Pew Research Center, FACTANK. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/2017/09/20/americans-see-men-as-the-financial-providers-even-as.women’s contributions grow/

  • Parkes, A., Green, M., & Mitchell, K. (2019). Coparenting and parenting pathways from the couple relationship to children’s behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 33, 215–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peltz, J. S., Rogge, R. D., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2018). Transactions within the family: Coparenting mediates associations between parents’ relationship satisfaction and the parent-child relationship. Journal of Family Psychology, 32, 553–564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, R. (2001). The father-daughter relationship: Familial interactions that impact a daughter’s style of life. College Studies Journal, 35, 616–627.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrin, J. M., Anderson, L. E., & van Cleave, J. (2014). The rise in chronic conditions among infants, children, and youth can be met with continued health system innovations. Health Affairs, 33, 2099–2105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (2013, March). Modern parenthood: Roles of moms and dads converge as they balance work and family. Available at: https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/03/14/modern-parenthood-roles-of-moms-and-dads-converge-as-they-balance-work-and-family

  • Pew Research Center. (2015a, November). Raising kids and running a household: How working parents share the load. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/11/2015-11-04_working-parents_FINAL.pdf

  • Pew Research Center. (2015b, December). Parenting in America: Outlook, worries, aspirations are strongly linked to financial situation. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/12/2015-12-17_parenting-in-america_FINAL.pdf

  • Pew Research Center. (2016a, January). Parents, teens and digital monitoring. Available at: https://www.pewinternet.org/2016/01/07/parents-teens-and-digital-monitoring/

  • Pew Research Center. (2016b, October). The state of American jobs: How the economic landscape is reshaping work and society and the way people think about the skills and training they need to get ahead. Available at: https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2016/10/06/the-state-of-American-jobs

  • Pew Research Center. (2018, February). Internet/broadband connection. Available at: https://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/

  • Pfledderer, C., Burns, R., & Brusseau, T. (2019). Association between access to electronic devices in the home environment and cardiorespiratory fitness in children. Children, 6, 8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plavacan, J. M. (2012). Social behavior of early hominins. International Journal of Primatology, 33, 1247–1250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pleck, J. H. (2010). Paternal involvement. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (5th ed., pp. 58–93). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pruden, S. M., & Levine, S. C. (2017). Parents’ spatial language mediates a sex difference in preschoolers’ spatial-language use. Psychological Science, 28, 1583–1596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qian, Y., De Loney, E. H., & Caldwell, C. H. (2018). Moderating effects of residential history on the effects of a fatherhood program on parenting skills satisfaction among nonresident African American fathers. Healthcare, 6, 13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raley, S., Bianchi, S., & Yang, W. (2012). When do fathers care? Mothers’ economic contribution and fathers’ involvement in child care. American Journal of Sociology, 117, 1422–1459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rane, T. R., & McBride, B. A. (2000). Identity theory as a guide to understanding fathers’ involvement with their children. Journal of Family Issues, 21, 347–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reinking, A., & Martin, B. (2018). The gender gap in STEM fields: Theories, movements, and ideas to engage girls in STEM. Journal of New Approaches in Educational Research, 7, 148–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, M., Leslie, S. J., Yee, K., & Saunders, K. (2019). Subtle linguistic cues increase girls’ engagement in science. Psychological Science, 30, 455–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, C. E., Rosanoff, M., Dawson, G., Durkin, M. S., Croen, L. A., Singer, A., et al. (2012). Evaluating changes in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Public Health Reviews, 34, 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robison, L. L., & Hudson, M. M. (2014). Survivors of childhood and adolescent cancer: Life- long risks and responsibilities. National Review of Cancer, 14, 61–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samman, E., Presler-Marshall, E., & Jones, N. (2016). Women’s work, mothers, children and the global childcare crisis. Available at: https://www.odi.org/publications/10349-women-s-work-mothers-children-and-global-childcare-crisis

  • Saturn, S. (2014). Flexibility of the father’s brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 11(27), 9671–9672.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Kotila, L., Jia, R., Lang, S. N., & Bower, D. J. (2013). Comparisons of levels and predictors of mothers’ and fathers’ engagement with their preschool aged children. Early Child Development and Care, 183, 498–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Floyd, F. J., Pettee, Y., & Hong, J. (2001). Life course impacts of parenting a child with a disability. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 106, 265–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, J., & Harris, E. (2012). Social class and parenting: Classic debates and new understandings. Social Compass, 6, 60–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silander, M., Grindal, T., Hupert, N., Garcia, E., Anderson, K., Vahey, P., et al. (2018). What parents talk about when they talk about learning: A national survey about young children and science. New York/Menlo Park, CA: Education Development Center, Inc./SRI International. Available at: https://www.sri.com/sites/default/files/publications/edc_sri_what_parents_talk_about.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J., Cheater, F., & Bekker, H. (2012). Parents’ experiences of living with a child with a long-term condition: A rapid structured review of the literature. Health Expectations, 18, 452–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobsey, D. (2002). Marital stability and marital satisfaction in families of children with disabilities: Chicken or egg? Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 32, 62–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Canada. (2018). The shift to smaller households over the past century. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-630-x/11-630-x2015008-eng.htm

  • Stein, S. (2018, March). An age-by-age guide to kids and smartphones. Today’s Parent. Available at: https://www.todaysparent.com/family/.../an-age-by-age-guide-to-kids-and-smartphone...

  • Stgeorge, J., & Freeman, E. (2017). Measurement of father-child rough-and-tumble play and its relation to child behavior. Infant Mental Health Journal, 38, 709–725.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Storey, A. E., & Ziegler, T. E. (2016). Primate paternal care: Interactions with biology and social experience. Hormones and Behavior, 77, 260–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, R., & Goldberg, W. A. (1999). Self and possible selves during the transition to fatherhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 244–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan-Bolyai, S., Rosenberg, R., & Bayard, M. (2006). Fathers’ reflections on parenting young children with type 1 diabetes. American Journal of Maternal and Child Nursing, 31, 24–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swain, J. E., Dayton, C. J., Kim, P., Tolman, R. M., & Volling, B. L. (2014). Progress on the paternal brain: Theory, animal models, human brain research, and mental health implications. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35, 394–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swallow, V., Macfadyen, A., Sanatacroce, S., & Lambert, H. (2012). Fathers’ contributions to the management of their child’s long-term medical condition: A narrative review of the literature. Health Expectations, 15, 157–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeting, H., Bhaskar, A., Benzeval, M., Popham, F., & Hunt, K. (2013). Changing gender roles and attitudes and their implications for well-being around the new millennium. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49, 791–809.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tandon, P., Grow, H. M., Couch, S., Glanz, K., Sallis, J. F., Frank, L. D., et al. (2014). Physical and social home environment in relation to children’s overall and home-based physical activity and sedentary time. Preventive Medicine, 66, 39–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, D., Casey, B. M., Lombardi, C. M., & Nguyen, H. N. (2020). Quality of fathers’ spatial concept support during block building predicts their daughters’ early math skill – but not their sons’. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 50, 51–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasetto, C., Mirisola, A., Galdi, S., & Cadinu, M. (2015). Parents’ math–gender stereotypes, children’s self-perception of ability, and children’s appraisal of parents’ evaluations in 6-year-olds. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 42, 186–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsang, S. K., Hui, E. K., & Law, B. C. (2012). Positive identity as a positive youth development construct: A conceptual view. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 529691.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2019). Civilian labor force participation rate: Women [LNS11300002]. Retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis: https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LNS11300002

  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2014, April). Adopted children and stepchildren: 2010. Population characteristics. Available at: https://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/p20-572.pdf

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children and Families. (2010, February). Responsible fatherhood spotlight, father involvement – children with disabilities. Available at: http://dhhs.nv.gov/uploadedFiles/dhhsnvgov/content/Programs/IDEA/ProjectASSIST/2010Feb-Father%20Involvement-ChildrenwithDisabilitiesUSDeptofHHSA.pdf

  • United Nations Children’s Fund. (2018). Levels and trends in child mortality, report 2018. Available at: https://childmortality.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/UN-IGME-Child-Mortality-Report-2018.pdf

  • United States Census Bureau. (2018). Historical household tables. Table HH-4. Households by size: 1960-present. Available at: https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/families/households.html

  • Vandello, J. (2013). When equal isn’t really equal: The masculine dilemma of seeking work flexibility. Journal of Social Issues, 69, 301–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Videon, T. M. (2005). Parent-child relations and children’s psychological well-being. Do dads matter? Journal of Family Issues, 26, 55–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volling, B. L. (2012). Family transitions following the birth of a sibling: An empirical review of changes in the firstborn’s adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 497–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, S. L., Taylor, H. G., Walz, N. C., Salisbury, S., Stancin, T., Bernard, L. A., et al. (2006). Parent-child interactions during the initial weeks following brain injury in young children. Rehabilitation Psychology, 53, 180–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, M. E., Schubert, H. J. P., & Schubert, D. S. P. (1985). Family size effects: A review. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 146, 65–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallerstein, J., & Lewis, J. M. (2007). Disparate parenting and step-parenting with siblings in the post-divorce family. Report from a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Family Studies, 13, 224–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West, S. (2000). Just a shadow: A review of support of fathers of children with disabilities. Birmingham, UK: Handsel Trust.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitebread, D., Neale, D., Jensen, H., Liu, C., Solis, S. L., Hopkins, E., et al. (2017). The role of play in children’s development: A review of the evidence. Billund, Denmark: The LEGO Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitsell, C. J., Teti, D. M., Crosby, B., & Kim, B. (2015). Household chaos, sociodemographic risk, coparenting, and parent-infant relations during the infants’ first year. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 211–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (2019). Infant mortality rates for the United States (SPDYNIMRTINUSA). Available at: https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/SPDYNIMRTINUSA

  • Wysocki, T., & Gavin, L. (2004). Psychometric properties of a new measure of fathers’ involvement in the management of pediatric chronic diseases. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 29, 231–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, G., Strathearn, L., Liu, B., Yan, B., & Bao, W. (2018). Twenty-year trends in diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among US children and adolescents, 1997-2016. JAMA Network Open, 1(4), e181471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yogman, M., Garfield, C. F., & The Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. (2016). Fathers’ roles in the care and development of their children: The role of pediatricians. Pediatrics, 138(1), e20161128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yogman, M. W., Kindlon, D. & Earls, F. (1995). Father involvement and cognitive/behavioral outcomes of preterm infants. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Medicine, 34, 58–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler, T. E., Prudom, S. L., & Zahed, S. R. (2009). Variations in male parenting and physiology in the common marmoset. American Journal of Human Biology, 21, 739–744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, K. J., & Collins, W. A. (2003). Autonomy development during adolescence. In G. R. Adams & M. Berzonskyi (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of adolescence (pp. 175–294). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Child and Family Success, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

    Robert H. Bradley

Authors
  1. Robert H. Bradley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert H. Bradley .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA

    Hiram E. Fitzgerald

  2. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Sachsen, Germany

    Kai von Klitzing

  3. University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

    Natasha J. Cabrera

  4. Graduate Program in Educational Psychology, Centro Universitário FIEO, Osasco, São Paulo, Brazil

    Júlia Scarano de Mendonça

  5. Division of Mental Health, Akershus University Hospital HF, Lørenskog, Norway

    Thomas Skjøthaug

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Bradley, R.H. (2020). Fathers and Their Very Young Children: Future Directions. In: Fitzgerald, H.E., von Klitzing, K., Cabrera, N.J., Scarano de Mendonça, J., Skjøthaug, T. (eds) Handbook of Fathers and Child Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51027-5_41

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation