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Philosophical Issues in Water Law

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Ethical Water Stewardship

Part of the book series: Water Security in a New World ((WSEC))

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Abstract

The use of law to regulate water raises many philosophical issues. This chapter examines the two principle moral justifications on which legal regulation rests: regulating water is important primarily because it ensures human access to it (the instrumental justification); regulating water is important because water is valuable in itself (the non-instrumental justification). The chapter will also explore the meaning of “law” by comparing various systems for regulating water, including non–stated-based systems (such as community, social, cultural, moral, or religious rules) and state-based systems (including international human rights law, domestic constitutional law, administrative and regulatory approaches, environmental stewardship, and traditional private law mechanisms). Throughout the chapter, we will also identify various critical perspectives that force us to consider whether the concept of law that supports legal regulation of water or whether specific laws and rules that societies have created treat marginalized groups such as women, the poor, racialized groups, and Indigenous peoples fairly.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    I have placed “regulation” in quotes because I will discuss moral and religious rules that some societies use to regulate water. Some people do not consider such rules to be regulations in the same way that laws enforced by the government are.

  2. 2.

    I use the word “state” in the international law sense to refer to polities that are recognized in international law. I restrict it to this use to make it clear that law exists outside of such states (hence the term “nons-state-based law”), for instance in the polities of Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities, which have systems for regulating water that preexist or coexist with those created by officially recognized states.

  3. 3.

    For a discussion of the international law position in regard to what law applies to the Western Sahara, see the Western Sahara Case (1975: 12). Water is discussed in para 137.

  4. 4.

    For a good introduction to New Institutional Economics, see North (1995) and Ostrom (2008).

  5. 5.

    For a discussion on whether rules of an informal, spiritual, or moral nature constitute “law” in the sense used in European legal traditions, see the writings of those in the legal pluralist tradition such as MacDonald (2011) and Chiba (1998).

  6. 6.

    Two ancient Greek philosophers, Thales and Hippo, both held the view that water is a basic principle that explains the functioning of the natural world. See for instance Simplicius’ summary of their views in Urmson (1992: 23:21–29). Chinese philosophers had similar views: an example can be found in the Guanzi (管子; ch. 39). For an interpretation of the relevant passage, see Fung (1952: 166–67).

  7. 7.

    For examples of codes for the regulation of water from other regions, see Nanni (2007: ch. 2–3).

  8. 8.

    For an introduction to the topic by a contemporary Chinese philosopher, see Tu Wei-ming (1972).

  9. 9.

    For instance, see the Indigenous Peoples’ Earth Charter of 1992, in which Indigenous peoples describe their relationship to their territory in spiritual terms. Para 31 of the Charter states that “Indigenous Peoples were placed upon our Mother, the Earth, by the Creator. We belong to the land. We cannot be separated from our lands and territories.”

  10. 10.

    See also the Garma International Indigenous Water Declaration (2008) and Sanderson (2008).

  11. 11.

    For some ideas in this regard, see Assembly of First Nations: http://www.afn.ca/honoring-water

  12. 12.

    Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843), Novalis (1772–1801), Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829) are but a few examples. The themes of German Romanticism are also famously taken up by the poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832).

  13. 13.

    As an example of such critique, see Heidegger (1977).

  14. 14.

    “‘La pensée paysagère’, qu’est-ce que cela veut dire?” (presented on December 9, 2017; on file with author), 12. See also “Existe-t-il un mode de pensée forestier?” (presented on January 28, 2017, at the University of Paris-Sorbonne; on file with author).

  15. 15.

    In regard to Japanese philosophy, Berque is particularly inspired by the work of Watsuji Tetsurō, especially his concept of aidagara (“betweenness”), which Berque translates as “médiance.” Watsuji’s notion of this term is described in works such as his three-volume Ethics (Rinrigaku), a portion of which is translated into English as Watsuji Tetsurō’s Rinrigaku: Ethics in Japan, trans. Yamamoto Seisaku and Robert E. Carter (New York: SUNY Press, 1996), and Climate and Culture: A Philosophical Study, trans. Geoffrey Bownas (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1988).

  16. 16.

    For a discussion of the importance of promoting human rights to protect these capacities, see Sen (1999).

  17. 17.

    See generally Alston (2013).

  18. 18.

    Alan Gewirth claims that human freedom is the fundamental value underlying human rights. See Gewirth (1982). For similar natural rights views, see Finnis (2011), Griffin (2008), and Perry (1998). Henry Shue (1996: 23) includes a right to unpolluted water as a “basic right.”

  19. 19.

    See, e.g., Finnis (2011: 205), citing Hart (1971: 200–1).

  20. 20.

    Joseph Raz (2010: 39) writes that according to traditional human rights theories, human rights are “universal because they are rights every human being has as a human being.”

  21. 21.

    Aristotle believed that to understand what it means to be human and to know how to act as a human, one must understand the “function” of humans (Nicomachean Ethics 1097b24). This function, Aristotle argues, is to act in accordance with our reason, which in turn requires that we act virtuously (NE 1098a15-17). It is in this sense that Nussbaum (1995: 118), like other philosophers, argues that what makes us truly human is our capacity for practical reason (moral reasoning). For a very good discussion of Aristotle’s argument and its critics, see Korsgaard (2009).

  22. 22.

    Nussbaum is developing the idea of Aristotle that the function of the state is to ensure that people have what they need in order to fulfil their function, which is to act in accordance with reason in the pursuit of virtue. She writes, “The job of [the future legislator] is to give to the people in his city the necessary conditions for choosing a flourishing human life. The city aims at making people capable of such choices. A life that is not even human at all is, a fortiori, not a good human life. And it is Aristotle’s claim that many conceivable political and economic arrangements do, either wholly or in part, remove the humanity from political life by removing choice from people – either in a single sphere or across the board” (1995: 118).

  23. 23.

    See also Hardt and Negri (2000).

  24. 24.

    For a discussion focused more on human rights, see Anghie (2013).

  25. 25.

    For a good modern development of Mill’s approach to human rights, see Talbott (2010).

  26. 26.

    I discussed Nussbaum’s work in the section on natural law theories because I believe her inspirations – the Stoics and Aristotle – fit into this paradigm. As an economist, Sen’s philosophical reasons for promoting the “capabilities approach” are slightly different than those of Nussbaum.

  27. 27.

    This is discussed in Hanemann (2006). The original distinction between private and public goods originates with Samuelson (1954: 387–389), elaborated in Samuelson (1955).

  28. 28.

    For an argument that water is a public good, see Barlow (2007).

  29. 29.

    For a discussion of how law and economics treats “common-pool” goods and various solutions for regulating them through institutions such as private property rights, see Trebilcock (1997: 138–141).

  30. 30.

    Such administrative rules and the law that regulates them are discussed in Loughlin (2010).

  31. 31.

    On the dialogue theory that explains the back and forth between courts and legislatures in the process of interpreting laws and the constitution, see Roach (2001).

  32. 32.

    Wood describe this approach as based on the assumption that environmental “agencies are neutral and objective agents of the public, constituted to carry out statutory objectives without regard to internal or external political agendas” (2009a: 59).

  33. 33.

    In the UK and its former colonies, “common law” is law made by judges; it is contrasted with law made by legislators such as elected officials. In other countries that are governed by civil law, the kinds of rules contained in the common law are often found in the country’s civil code.

  34. 34.

    For a good overview of research methods used by law and economics, see Trebilcock (1997: 124). For an application of law and economics analysis to environmental law, see Green (2006).

  35. 35.

    See, e.g., Brewer et al. (2007).

  36. 36.

    For a general description of feminist methods for studying law, see Bartlett (1990: 829). Similar questions are asked by non-lawyers, such as those interested international development. In this regard, see Beetham and Demetriades (2007). See also Harris et al. (2015).

  37. 37.

    For critical race approaches in general, see e.g. (Razack et al. 2010; Matsuda 1988; Crenshaw 1991; Harris 1990; Razack 1998). In regard to the environment, see Sturgeon (1997) and Moore et al. (2003).

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  1. Faculty of Law, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

    Graham Mayeda

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    Ingrid Leman Stefanovic

  2. Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada

    Zafar Adeel

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Mayeda, G. (2021). Philosophical Issues in Water Law. In: Stefanovic, I.L., Adeel, Z. (eds) Ethical Water Stewardship . Water Security in a New World. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49540-4_13

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