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Judicial Enforcement of Environmental Human Rights in Africa

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Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law

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Abstract

Courts constitute platforms for fostering environmental conservation in terms of the orders they hand down. For instance, court orders taking the form of injunctions have the potential to prevent harm before such harm even occurs. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the role of the judiciary in enforcing environmental rights, and ultimately environmental conservation in Africa. The chapter assesses how the rules of standing and the manner in which environmental rights are couched either limit or advance the enforcement of rights by courts of law. The chapter uses the experience of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania to represent continental discussions. The doctrinal method is invoked in conducting this research.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Akin L. Mabogunje, The Environmental Challenges in Sub Saharan Africa, African technology Forum. 8 (1998), http://web.mit.edu/africantech/www/articles/EnvChall.htm; United Nations Environment Program “UN Environment’s Africa Office is supporting the continent’s journey towards sustainable development” (2019), https://www.unenvironment.org/regions/africa

  2. 2.

    Avitus Agbor, The Ineffectiveness and Inadequacies of International Instruments in Combatting and Ending the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Environmental Degradation in Africa, 9 African Journal of Legal Studies. 236 (2016).

  3. 3.

    Christian Nellemann, Rune Henriksen, Arnold Kreilhuber, Davyth Stewart, Maria Kotsovou, Patricia Raxter, Elizabeth Mrema and Sam Barrat, The rise of environmental crimes § 7 (2016).

  4. 4.

    John Diamond (ed), Land, Water, and Forests: Assets for Climate resilient Development in Africa § 7–15 (2011).

  5. 5.

    Ibid.

  6. 6.

    Ibid., 8.

  7. 7.

    Ibid.

  8. 8.

    Ibid.

  9. 9.

    See, for example, article 50(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, 1995; article 70(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of Kenya 2010.

  10. 10.

    The criminal jurisdiction of these courts is derived from multiple legislation in these countries. For example, in terms of section 96 of the National Environment Act of Uganda Chapter 153, the failure to prepare or submit or prepare an Environment Impact Assessment amounts to a criminal offence the penalty of which is imprisonment for 18 months or a fine worth 180,000 Ugandan Shillings and not more than 18 million Ugandan shillings. In certain cases, the guilty party can be imprisoned and also be required to pay a fine.

  11. 11.

    Antonio Herman Benjamin, Matters of judgement: The potential for sustainability at the local level is huge, fundamental and achievable, (2017)19, https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/20259/Our%20Planet%20March%202017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

  12. 12.

    Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme, Johannesburg Principles on the role of law and Sustainable Development adopted at the Global Judges Symposium held in Johannesburg, South Africa on 18–20 August 2002.

  13. 13.

    Roda Mushkat, International Environmental Law and Asian Values: Legal Norms and Cultural Influences § 50 (2004).

  14. 14.

    Conserve Future, Environmental Conservation, https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/methods-and-importance-of-environmental-conservation.php

  15. 15.

    By Roda Mushkat, International Environmental Law and Asian Values: Legal Norms and Cultural Influences, § 51 (2004). See also Adem K Abebe, Towards more liberal standing rules to enforce constitutional rights in Ethiopia, 10 African Human Rights Law Journal. 407–431 (2010).

  16. 16.

    Emmanuel Kallonga, Alan Rodgers Fred Nelson, Yannick Ndoinyo and Rugemeleza Nshala, Reforming environmental governance in Tanzania: Natural resource management and the rural economy, 1 (2002), Paper presented at the Inaugural Tanzanian Biennial Development Forum 24th–25th April 2003 at the Golden Tulip Hotel, Dar es Salaam Tanzania, http://www.ujamaa-crt.org/uploads/1/2/5/7/12575135/reforn_ujamaa.pdf

  17. 17.

    Rahma Mohamed Msoffei, Increase in deforestation: A key challenge to household charcoal supply – A case of Tanga urban, Tanzania, 2 European Journal of Social Sciences Studies. 133–151 (2017).

  18. 18.

    Jafari R Kideghesho1a, Julius W Nyahongo, Shombe N Hassan, Thadeo C Tarimold and Nsajigwa E Mbije1e, Factors and Ecological Impacts of Wildlife Habitat Destruction in the Serengeti Ecosystem in Northern Tanzania, 11 AJEAM-RAGEE. 17–32 (2007).

  19. 19.

    Simeon Otieno Dulo, Impact of Poor Solid Waste Management in Kenya on Groundwater, § 39–40 (2009) Doctoral thesis, University of Nairobi.

  20. 20.

    Sam Weru, Wildlife protection and trafficking assessment in Kenya: Traffic report, 1–49 (2016), https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/Traf-126.pdf

  21. 21.

    Seton Stiebert, Deborah Murphy, Jason Dion and Scott McFatridge, Kenya’s Climate Change Action Plan: Mitigation, Chapter 4: Forestry. 2–3 (2012), http://www.kccap.info/phocadownload/final/SC4/Chapter%204%20SC4_Forestry_Final.pdf

  22. 22.

    Ibid.

  23. 23.

    Dulo, Impact of poor.

  24. 24.

    Ibid.

  25. 25.

    Francis NW Nsubuga, Edith N Namutebi, Masoud Nsubuga-Ssenfuma, Water resources of Uganda: An assessment and review, 6 Journal of Water Resource and Protection. 1297–1315 (2014).

  26. 26.

    Ibid., 1307.

  27. 27.

    Examples of such legislation include the Local Government Act Chapter 265, the Agricultural Seeds and Plants Act Chapter 28, the Uganda Wildlife Act Chapter 200, the National Environment Act Chapter153, the Land Act Chapter 227, the Water Act Chapter 152, the Fisheries Act Chapter 197 and the Penal Code Act Cap 120.

  28. 28.

    See status of ratification/accession of these treaties.

  29. 29.

    In terms of article 26 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, the ratification of treaties creates binding obligations on states and as such, states are to implement provisions of treaties they are party to in good faith.

  30. 30.

    See generally Environmental Management Act of 2004 of Tanzania.

  31. 31.

    See, for example, The Mining Act, Chapter 123 R.E 2002 and Environmental Management Act 20 of 2004 of Tanzania.

  32. 32.

    Section 38(1) of the Mining Act, Chapter 123 of 2002. A similar requirement is entrenched in section 81 of the Environmental Management Act, No. 20 of 2004.

  33. 33.

    Emmanuel Laban Kileo, Enforcement and implementation of environmental laws and the protection of mining areas in Tanzania: a case study of Mererani. § 56–57 (2013), Masters Degree Dissertation Mzumbe University.

  34. 34.

    Ibid.

  35. 35.

    See part II and part III of the Constitution of the Republic of Tanzania 1977.

  36. 36.

    Article 9(c) of the Constitution of the Republic of Tanzania 1977.

  37. 37.

    Reddy Chinnappa, The Court and the Constitution of India: Summit and Shallows, § 73(2010).

  38. 38.

    Berihun Adugna Gebeye, The Potential of Directive Principles of State Policy for the Judicial Enforcement of Socio-Economic Rights: A Comparative Study of Ethiopia and India, 4 ICL Journal. 4 (2015).

  39. 39.

    Bikash Thapa, Enforceability of Directive Principles with Reference to Judicial Decisions of Nepal, 1(2013), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2221996

  40. 40.

    Cited in Gebeye, The potential, 4.

  41. 41.

    Cited in Bertus De Villiers, Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights: The Indian Experience, 8 South African Journal of Human Rights. 34 (1992).

  42. 42.

    Raj Kumar, International human rights perspectives on the fundamental right to education-integration of human rights and human development in the Indian Constitution, 12 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law. 265 (2004).

  43. 43.

    See, for example, decisions in the cases of Sajjan Singh v State of Rajasthan 1965 SCR (1) 933; Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala and Another 1973 Supreme Court of India; Minerva Mills Ltd. & Others v Union of India & Others 1981 SCR (1) 206; Waman Rao and Ors v Union of India and Others (1981) 2 SCC 362; Chandra Bhavan Boarding and v The State of Mysore and Another 1970 SCR (2) 600. In these cases the courts drew profound insight from the DPSP in arriving at their decision to protect fundamental human rights.

  44. 44.

    New Patriotic Party v Attorney-General (1996–97) Supreme Court of Ghana Law Reports.

  45. 45.

    See generally the DPSP of the Constitutions of Namibia, Nigeria, Lesotho, Sierra Leone and Tanzania.

  46. 46.

    Festo Balegele v Dar es Salaam City Council, Misc. Civil Case No. 90 of 1991, High Court of Tanzania.

  47. 47.

    See, for example, Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) 1999; Environmental Management and Coordination (Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit) Regulations 2003; Environmental Management and Coordination (Water Quality) Regulations 2006; Environmental Management and Coordination (Waste Management) Regulations 2006; Environmental Management and Coordination (Conservation of Biodiversity, Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing) Regulations 2006; Environmental Management and Coordination (Fossil Fuel Emission Control) Regulations 2006; The Wildlife (Conservation and Management)Act, Cap. 376; National Museums and Heritage Act 2006; Fisheries Act, Cap 378 1989; Forest Act 2005; Plant Protection Act Cap 324; Suppression of Noxious Weeds Act Cap 325; Water Act 2002; Agriculture Act Cap 318; Public Health Act Cap 242; Local Government Act Cap 265; Penal Code Cap 63; Traffic Act Cap 403; Radiation Protection Act Cap 243; The Maritime Zones Act Cap 371; Maritime Authority Act 2006; Continental Shelf Act Cap 312; Occupier’s Liability Act Cap 34.

  48. 48.

    Joel Kimutai Bosek, Implementing environmental rights in Kenya’s new constitutional order: Prospects and potential challenges, 14 African Human Rights Law Journal. 492 (2014).

  49. 49.

    Section 3 of the Environmental Management and Coordination Act 1999 of Kenya.

  50. 50.

    Rodgers Muema Nzioka & 2 Others v Tiomin Kenya Limited (Muema case) HCCC 97 of 2001.

  51. 51.

    Article 42 of the Constitution of the Republic of Kenya 2010.

  52. 52.

    Article 69 of the Constitution of the Republic of Kenya 2010.

  53. 53.

    See, for example, Joseph Leboo & 2 others v Director Kenya Forest Services & another Environment and Land No. 273 of 2013 eKLR; Moffat Kamau & 9 others v Aelous Kenya Limited & 9 others Constitutional Petition No.13 of 2015 [2016] eKLR; African Centre for Rights and Governance (ACRAG) &3 others v Municipal Council of Naivasha Petition No. 50 of 2012 [2017] eKLR. For commentary on some of the jurisprudence of the Environment and Land Court, see Caiphas B Soyapi, Environmental Protection in Kenya’s Environment and Land Court, 31 Journal of Environmental Law. 151–161 (2019).

  54. 54.

    The National Environment Act Chapter153.

  55. 55.

    Section 3 of the National Environment Act Chapter153.

  56. 56.

    Article 39 of the Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995.

  57. 57.

    Article 50(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995.

  58. 58.

    Uganda Electricity Transmission Co Ltd v De Samaline Incorporation Ltd, Miscellaneous Cause No. 181 of 2004, High Court of Uganda.

  59. 59.

    Greenwatch v Attorney General and National Environment Management Authority Miscellaneous Application No. 371 of 2002, High Court of Uganda.

  60. 60.

    Edwin Jaggard Handbook of the law of torts (1895).

  61. 61.

    Ibid., 660–663.

  62. 62.

    Jaggard, Handbook, 744–748.

  63. 63.

    Jaggard, Handbook, 810–815.

  64. 64.

    Jaggard, Handbook, 737–738.

  65. 65.

    Wangari Maathai v Kenya Times Media Trust Ltd (1989) 1 KLR (E&L).

  66. 66.

    Gouriet v the National Union of Post Office Workers (1977) 3 All ER 71–72.

  67. 67.

    Article 50(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995.

  68. 68.

    Article 50(2) of the Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995.

  69. 69.

    The Constitution of the Republic of Tanzania 1977.

  70. 70.

    Article 70(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of Kenya 2010.

  71. 71.

    Mtikila v The Attorney General, Tanzanian Civil Suit No.5 of 1993.

  72. 72.

    See, for example, Ngang C. Carol, Judicial enforcement of socio-economic rights in South Africa and the separation of powers objection: The obligation to take ‘other measures, 14 African Human Rights Law Journal. 655–680 (2014); Albie Sachs, The Judicial Enforcement of Socio-Economic Rights: The Grootboom Case, 56 Current Legal Problems. 579–601 (2003).

  73. 73.

    Timothy Capurso, How Judges Judge: Theories on Judicial Decision Making, 9 University of Baltimore Law Forum. 5–16 (1998).

  74. 74.

    Ibid., 9–12.

  75. 75.

    Ibid.

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    Ibid., 5–8.

  78. 78.

    Ibid.

  79. 79.

    Ibid.

  80. 80.

    See Muema case above.

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  1. Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

    Emma Charlene Lubaale

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  1. Research Institute of Environmental Law, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China

    Michael Addaney

  2. Department of Public Law, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa

    Ademola Oluborode Jegede

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Lubaale, E.C. (2020). Judicial Enforcement of Environmental Human Rights in Africa. In: Addaney, M., Oluborode Jegede, A. (eds) Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46523-0_7

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