Human Rights-based Approach to Environmental Protection: Kenyan, South African and Nigerian Constitutional Architecture and Experience

Odote, Collins

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46523-0_15

Collins Odote³

434 Accesses
1 Citations

Abstract

In the international development of human rights, there is controversy on whether there exists a human right to the environment; if so, is such a right supportive or inimical to sustainable development? The question draws from two important standpoints. First, the UN Charter and core human rights instruments did not explicitly capture environment issues as part of human rights discourse. Second, the role of human beings in environmental protection, pitting anthropocentric and ecocentric arguments has meant that there is no unanimity that the rights of human beings are supportive of the right of the environment. In 2010, Kenya adopted a transformative Constitution. The Constitution followed the path of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and borrowed from that of South Africa, by recognizing that human beings have a fundamental right to the environment. Based on a comparative analysis of Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa, this chapter argues that in application, environmental rights are more collective than individual. Human rights-based approach to environmental protection must temper individuality to guarantee sustainability.

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Notes

1.
Adopted in Nairobi on June 27, 1981. Available at http://www.humanrights.se/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/African-Charter-on-Human-and-Peoples-Rights.pdf accessed 15th August 2019
2.
Ibid., Article 24.
3.
Suzanne C Gragnon Thompson and Michelle A Barton, ‘Ecocentric and Anthropocentric Attitudes Toward the Environment’ (1994)14 <Emphasis Type="Italic">Journal of Environmental Philosophy 149.
4.
United Nations, Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, A/Res/70/1 https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E accessed 17 July 2019.
5.
David R Boyd, The Environmental Rights Revolution: A Global Study of Constitutions, Human Rights, and the Environment (UBC Press 2012) 3.
6.
UNGA Res. 2398(XXIII) (1968).
7.
United Nations, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, A/CONF.48/14. Available at https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/CONF.48/14/REV.1 accessed 19 July 2019.
8.
Stockholm Declaration, Preamble. Ibid.
9.
Ibid.
10.
Principle 1, Stockholm Declaration n 7.
11.
Ulrich Beyerlin and Thilo Marauhn, International Environmental Law (Hart Publishing, 2011) 393.
12.
Principle 1, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992. Available at http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/RIO_E.PDF (Last accessed on 25th June 2019).
13.
Ibid.
14.
Dinah Shelton, ‘What Happened in Rio to Human Rights?’ (1992) 3(1) Yearbook International Environmental Law 75, 82.
15.
Phillipe Sands, et al. Principles of International Environmental Law (4th Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2018) 81.
16.
Alan Boyle, ‘Human Rights and the Environment: Where Next?” (2012) 23(3) European Journal of International Law 613.
17.
Ibid.
18.
Bridget Lewis, ‘Environmental Rights or the Right to Environment: exploring the Nexus Between Human Rights and Environmental Protection’ (2012) 8(1) Macquarie Journal of International and Comparative Environmental Law 36, 36.
19.
UN expert calls for global recognition of the right to safe and healthy environment, Geneva, 5 March 2018 https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22755&LangID=E.
20.
United Nations General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment, 37th Session of the Human Rights Council, 26 February-23 March 2018, A/HRC/37/59 https://www.right-docs.org/doc/a-hrc-37-59/
21.
Ibid.
22.
Ibid.
23.
Ibid.
24.
Ibid.
25.
Ibid.
26.
Ibid.
27.
Ibid.
28.
Ibid.
29.
Ibid.
30.
https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/documents/cep43e.pdf.
31.
UNGA, n20.
32.
Ibid.
33.
Ibid.
34.
Ibid.
35.
Ibid.
36.
Ibid.
37.
David Boyd, “Statement of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment,” 4th Session UNEA Assembly, 12th March 2019. http://web.unep.org/environmentassembly/un-special-rapporteur-human-rights-and-environment
38.
Ibid.
39.
Ibid.
40.
Istvan Lakatos, ‘Thoughts on Universalism versus Cultural Relativism with Special Attention to Women’s Rights’ (2018) 1 Pécs Journal of International and European Law 6.
41.
Ibid., 9.
42.
Ibid., 14.
43.
Yash Ghai, (2000) 21 ‘Universalism and Relativism: Human Rights as Framework for Negotiating Interethnic Claims’ Cardozo L Rev. 1095, 1095.
44.
UNHCR, “Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action,” Adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna, 25 June 1993.https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/Vienna.aspx
45.
Lakatos, (n 40) 18.
46.
J.B. Ojwang, Laying a Basis for Rights: Towards a Jurisprudence of Development, Inaugural Lecture Delivered Before the University of Nairobi on 9th July 1992, (University of Nairobi Press, 1992) 20.
47.
Adopted June 27, 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982). http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/z1afchar.htm.?
48.
Ibid.
49.
AU, ADB and ECA, Framework and Guidelines on Land Policy in Africa (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2010. https://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/fg_on_land_policy_eng.pdf
50.
ACHPR, Article 14.
51.
Ibid., Article 22(2).
52.
Ibid., Article 24
53.
UNEP, Global Environment Outlook (GEO-6), Regional Assessment for Africa (Nairobi, 2016). http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/7595/GEO_Africa_201611.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
54.
African Convention for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1001 UNTS 3.
55.
https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/7782-treaty-0029__revised_african_convention_on_the_conservation_of_nature_and_natural_resources_e.pdf
56.
Ibid., Article II.
57.
Robert Wabunoha, “Environmental Law of Africa,” in Patricia Kameri Mbote and Collins Odote (eds), Blazing the Trail: Professor Charles Okidi’s Enduring Legacy in the Development of Environmental Law (School of Law, University of Nairobi, 2019).
58.
Social and Economic Rights Action Center and the Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria (‘SERAC v. Nigeria – the Ogoniland Case’), AfCHPR, Communication 155/96 (2002).
59.
Ibid.
60.
Morne Van Linde, “Considering the Interpretation and Implementation of Article 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights in Light of the SERAC Communication’ (2003) 3 African Human Rights Law Journal 167, 168.
61.
Ibid.
62.
SERAC, (n58).
63.
Ibid.
64.
Ibid.
65.
Ibid.
66.
Ibid.
67.
Fons Cooman, “The Ogoni Case Before the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ (2003) 52(2) The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 749, 754.
68.
Ibid.
69.
Van Linde, (n60), 168.
70.
Ibid.
71.
Van Linde, (n60), 176.
72.
Boyd, (n5), which demonstrates that there has been an increase from several 4 in 1990 to 32 in 2011.
73.
Environmental law Institute and United Nations Environment Programme, Constitutional Environmental Law: Giving Force to Fundamental Principles in Africa (2nd Edition, Washington, 2007), vii.
74.
Carl Bruch and others, ‘Natural Resources, Power Sharing, and Peacebuilding in Post conflict Constitutions’ in Erin Daly and James R May (eds), Implementing Environmental Constitutionalism: Current Global Challenges (Cambridge University Press, 2018) 100.
75.
Constitution of Kenya, 2010, article 24.
76.
For a discussion of these, see Collins Odote, ‘Kenya: Constitutional Provisions on the Environment’ (2012) 1 IUCN Academy of Environmental Journal, E-journal 136.
77.
Constitution of Kenya, 2010, Article 42
78.
Ibid., Article 43
79.
Ibid., Article 69
80.
Ibid., Article 70
81.
Ibid., Article 10.
82.
See High Court case of Peter K. Waweru V. Republic, (2006) eKLR
83.
Joel Kimutai Bosek, ‘Implementing Environmental Rights in Kenya’s New Constitutional Order: Prospects and Potential Challenges’ (2014) 14 African Human Rights Law Journal 489, 491.
84.
Donald Kaniaru, (2011–2012) 29 ‘Environmental Courts and Tribunals: The Case of Kenya’ Pace Environmental Law Review, 566, 581.
85.
Collins Odote, ‘The Role of the Environmental and Land Court in Governing Natural Resources in Kenya’ in Patricia K. Mbote, et al., (eds) Law, Environment Africa (Nomos, 2019) 340.
86.
Constitution of Kenya, Article 69(1)(a)
87.
Ibid., Article 69(1)(b).
88.
Ibid., Article 69(1)(c)
89.
Ibid., Article 69(1)(d).
90.
Ibid., Article 69(1)(e)
91.
Article 69(1)(f).
92.
Article 69(1)(g).
93.
Article 69(1)(h).
94.
Constitution of Kenya, Article 43.
95.
Ibid., Article 43(1)(d).
96.
Constitution of Kenya, 2010, Article 59.
97.
For a report of the findings of the inquiry, see KNCHR, The Malindi Inquiry Report 2006: Report of a Public Inquiry into Allegations of Human Rights Violations in Magarini, Malindi, July 2006 http://www.knchr.org/Portals/0/Reports/Malindi_Inquiry.pdf
98.
Ibid.
99.
Ibid.
100.
Ibid.
101.
Ibid.
102.
Ibid., page 128.
103.
KNCHR, (n97)
104.
Collins Odote, ‘Public Interest Litigation and Climate Change-An Example from Kenya’, in Oliver C. Ruppel et al., Climate Change: International Law and Global Governance, Volume 1: Legal Responses and Global Responsibility (Nomos, 2013) 817.
105.
Wangari Maathai v Kenya Times Media Trust, 1 KLR(E&L) 2006, 164–171.
106.
Constitution of Kenya, 2010, Article 70(1).
107.
Ibid., Article 70(3).
108.
Constitution of Kenya, Article 162(2)(b).
109.
Odote, (n 85), 336.
110.
Ibid.
111.
Collins Odote, ‘Kenya: The New Environmental and Land Court’ (2013) 4 IUCN Academy of Environmental law E-Journal 171, 175–6
112.
Supra, note 85 at page 342
113.
Mohamed Ali Baadi and others v Attorney General & 11 others [2018] eKLR.
114.
Ibid.
115.
Ibid.
116.
Ibid.
117.
Ibid. See also, In the Mater of the Mui Coal Basin (2015) eKLR.
118.
Jan Glaweski, ‘The Environment, Human Rights and a New South African Constitution’ (1991)7 South African Journal of Human Rights 167, 180.
119.
Ibid., 182.
120.
Susana, Borras, ‘New Transitions from Human Rights to the Environment to the Rights of Nature’ (2016) 5(1) Transnational Environmental Law 113, 126.
121.
Ibid.
122.
Section 24, South African Constitution.
123.
Anel du Plessis, ‘The Promise of “Well-being” in Section 24 of the Constitution of South Africa’ (2018) 34(2) South African Journal of Human Rights 191, 192.
124.
Anel du Plessis, ‘Local Environmental Governance and the Role of Local government in the Realization of Section 24 of the South African Constitution’ (2010) 21(2) Stellenbosch Law Review 265, 268.
125.
2000 3 BCLR 277 (CC) paras 82–84.
126.
Paris (France), 12 Dec. 2015, in force 4 Nov. 2016 http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php (Paris Agreement) accessed on 26 August 2019.
127.
(65662/16) [2017] ZAGPPHC 58.
128.
Jacqueline Peel and Harry M Osofky, ‘A Rights Turn in Climate Change Litigation?’ (2018) 7(1) Transnational environmental Law 37, 59.
129.
Earthlife Africa Johannesburg v. Minister for Environmental Affairs & Others, Case No. 65662/16, Judgment of High Court of South Africa, Gauteng Division, Pretoria (South Africa), 8 Mar. 2017, available at: http://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Judgment-Earthlife-Thabametsi-Final-06-03-2017.pdf. (Earthlife Africa Johannesburg) para 82 accessed 20th August 2019
130.
Du Plessis, (n123), 203.
131.
Ibid.
132.
Louis J. Kotze, And Anel du Plessis, ‘Some Brief Observations on Fifteen Years of Environmental Rights Jurisprudence in South Africa’ (2010) 3(1) Journal of Court Innovation 157, 165.
133.
Ibid., page 175
134.
Ibid., Page 174.
135.
SERAC, note 58.
136.
Chapter II, Section 20, 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
137.
Theodore Okonkwo, ‘Environmental Constitutionalism in the United States and Nigeria: Recognizing Environmental Rights’ (2017) 5(7) International Journal of Social Science Studies 66, 69.
138.
Edwin Egede, ‘Human Rights and the Environment: Is There a legally Enforceable Right of a Clean and Healthy Environment for the “Peoples” of the Niger Delta under the Framework of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria’ (2007) 19(1) Sri Lanka Journal of International Law 51,52.
139.
Section 6(6), Nigerian Constitution,
140.
Jonah Gbemre v. Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Ltd. and Others, Federal High Court of Nigeria, Benin Division, Judgment of 14 November 2005, Suit No. FHC/B/CS/53/05; Oronto Douglas v. Shell Petroleum Development Company Ltd. (1999) 2 N.W.L.R. (Part 591); Gani Fawehinmi v. Abacha (1996) 9 N.W.L.R. (Part 475) 710.
141.
Suit No. FHC/B/CS/153/05, of 2005
142.
Ibid., para 3.
143.
CT Emejuru, ‘Human Rights and Environment: Whither Nigeria?’ (2014) 30 Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization 19, 27.
144.
Borras, (n120) 128.
145.
Ibid.
146.
Louis, E. Rodriguez-Rivera, ‘Is There a Human Rights to Environment Recognized Under International Law? It Depends on the Source’ (2001) 12 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 1,1.
147.
Allan Boyle, ‘Human Rights and the Environment: Where Next?’ (2012) 23(3) The European Journal of International Law 613.
148.
Ibid.
149.
Ibid.
150.
Ibid., at 614.
151.
Christopher, D. Stone, ‘Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects?’ (1972) 45 Southern California Law Review 450.
152.
WN Hohfeld, ‘Some Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning’ (1913–14) 23 Yale Law Journal 16.
153.
UNEP, Global Environment Outlook, GEO-6: Healthy Planet, Healthy People (Cambridge University Press, 2019) https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/27539/GEO6_2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
154.
Sumudu Attappatu, ‘The Right to a Healthy Life or the Life to Die Polluted: The Emergence of a Human Right to a Healthy Life Under International Law’ (2002) 16 Tulane Environmental Law Journal 65, 67.
155.
For discussions on development of an African Union Law, see generally, Olufemi Amao, African Union Law: The Emergence of a Sui Generis Legal Order, (Routledge Press, 2018).
156.
Borras, (n120) 128.

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Research Institute of Environmental Law, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
Michael Addaney
Department of Public Law, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
Ademola Oluborode Jegede

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Odote, C. (2020). Human Rights-based Approach to Environmental Protection: Kenyan, South African and Nigerian Constitutional Architecture and Experience. In: Addaney, M., Oluborode Jegede, A. (eds) Human Rights and the Environment under African Union Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46523-0_15

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