Skip to main content

Looking at Marijuana Through the Lens of Public Health

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Cannabis in Medicine

Abstract

The marijuana landscape is changing rapidly. Legislative reforms in many jurisdictions have opened up opportunities for legal medical and/or recreational use of marijuana. Simultaneously, the marijuana market is evolving dramatically. Marijuana potency has increased sharply since the millennium. New products such as edibles, concentrates, and oils have become more popular, and new routes of administration have emerged, such as vaping and dabbing. These new developments present a unique challenge to the field of public health, which is charged with promoting the health and well-being of communities.

Despite a growing evidence base, many questions still remain regarding the health risks and benefits of marijuana. The effects of the policy changes are not yet fully known, and the research struggles to keep up with a rapidly changing marijuana landscape. Health messages about marijuana are frequently conflated with discourses on legal status and medical benefits, and communication strategies cannot ignore changing public attitudes. In the face of the many unknowns, public health practitioners must assess health threats, develop policy responses and evaluate policy effectiveness based on the best available evidence. Careful monitoring is required to identify new threats and develop adequate responses.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. WHO’s role under the international drug control conventions [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Sep 12]. Available from: http://www.who.int/medicines/access/controlled-substances/ecdd/en/.

  2. WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence Forty-first report [Internet]. [cited 2019 Sep 12]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/325073.

  3. WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence Fortieth report [Internet]. [cited 2019 Sep 12]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/279948.

  4. Center for Behavioral Health Statistics S, International R. National survey on drug use and health: comparison of 2008-2009 and 2016-2017 Population Percentages (50 States and the District of Columbia) [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 23]. Available from: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/cbhsq-reports/NSDUHsaeTrendTabs2017/NSDUHsaeLongTermCHG2017.pdf.

  5. Davenport SS, Caulkins JP. Evolution of the United States marijuana market in the decade of liberalization before full legalization. J Drug Issues [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jun 26];46(4):411–27. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022042616659759.

  6. D’Amico EJ, Rodriguez A, Tucker JS, Pedersen ER, Shih RA. Planting the seed for marijuana use: changes in exposure to medical marijuana advertising and subsequent adolescent marijuana use, cognitions, and consequences over seven years. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 May 10];188:385–91. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S037687161830231X.

  7. Shih RA, Rodriguez A, Parast L, Pedersen ER, Tucker JS, Troxel WM, et al. Associations between young adult marijuana outcomes and availability of medical marijuana dispensaries and storefront signage. Addiction [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 23];add.14711. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31183908.

  8. Mair C, Freisthler B, Ponicki WR, Gaidus A. The impacts of marijuana dispensary density and neighborhood ecology on marijuana abuse and dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 May 7];154:111–6. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26154479.

  9. Hyland A, Travers MJ, Cummings KM, Bauer J, Alford T, Wieczorek WF. Tobacco outlet density and demographics in Erie County, New York. Am J Public Health [Internet]. 2003 [cited 2019 Jun 26];93(7):1075–6. Available from: http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.93.7.1075.

  10. LaVeist TA, Wallace JM. Health risk and inequitable distribution of liquor stores in African American neighborhood. Soc Sci Med [Internet]. 2000 [cited 2019 Jun 26];51(4):613–7. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953600000046.

  11. Hackbarth DP, Silvestri B, Cosper W. Tobacco and alcohol billboards in 50 Chicago neighborhoods: market segmentation to sell dangerous products to the poor. J Public Health Policy [Internet]. 1995 [cited 2019 Jun 26];16(2):213. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3342593?origin=crossref.

  12. Shi Y, Meseck K, Jankowska MM. Availability of medical and recreational marijuana stores and neighborhood characteristics in Colorado. J Addict [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 May 7];2016:7193740. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27213075.

  13. Denver’s pot businesses mostly in low-income, minority neighborhoods – The Denver Post [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 21]. Available from: https://www.denverpost.com/2016/01/02/denvers-pot-businesses-mostly-in-low-income-minority-neighborhoods/.

  14. Tabb LP, Fillmore C, Melly S. Location, location, location: assessing the spatial patterning between marijuana licenses, alcohol outlets and neighborhood characteristics within Washington state. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jun 26];185:214–8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S037687161830067X.

  15. Marijuana use among US college students reaches new 35-year high. University of Michigan News [Internet]. [cited 2019 Sep 10]. Available from: https://news.umich.edu/marijuana-use-among-us-college-students-reaches-new-35-year-high/.

  16. Wallace GT, Parnes JE, Prince MA, Conner BT, Riggs NR, George MW, et al. Associations between marijuana use patterns and recreational legislation changes in a large Colorado college student sample. Addict Res Theory [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 22];1–11. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/16066359.2019.1622003.

  17. Jones J, Nicole Jones K, Peil J. The impact of the legalization of recreational marijuana on college students. Addict Behav [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jan 24];77:255–9. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030646031730312X.

  18. Park S-Y, Holody KJ. Content, Exposure, and effects of public discourses about marijuana: a systematic review. J Health Commun [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Aug 23];23(12):1036–43. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30395785.

  19. Center for Behavioral Health Statistics S, International R. National survey on drug use and health: comparison of 2015-2016 and 2016-2017 population percentages (50 States and the District of Columbia) [Internet]. [cited 2019 Sep 24]. Available from: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/cbhsq-reports/NSDUHsaeChangeTabs2017/NSDUHsaeShortTermCHG2017.pdf.

  20. Burgard DA, Williams J, Westerman D, Rushing R, Carpenter R, LaRock A, et al. Using wastewater-based analysis to monitor the effects of legalized retail sales on cannabis consumption in Washington State, USA. Addiction [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 26]; Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/add.14641.

  21. Chandra S, Radwan MM, Majumdar CG, Church JC, Freeman TP, ElSohly MA. New trends in cannabis potency in USA and Europe during the last decade (2008–2017). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Apr 30];269(1):5–15. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30671616.

  22. Freeman TP, Groshkova T, Cunningham A, Sedefov R, Griffiths P, Lynksey MT. Increasing potency and price of cannabis in Europe, 2006-2016. Addiction [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jan 4]; Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/add.14525.

  23. Rømer Thomsen K, Lindholst C, Thylstrup B, Kvamme S, Reitzel LA, Worm-Leonhard M, et al. Changes in the composition of cannabis from 2000–2017 in Denmark: analysis of confiscated samples of cannabis resin. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 25]; Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31219274.

  24. ElSohly MA, Mehmedic Z, Foster S, Gon C, Chandra S, Church JC. Changes in cannabis potency over the last 2 decades (1995–2014): analysis of current data in the United States. Biol Psychiatry [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 May 13];79(7):613–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26903403.

  25. Freeman TP, Winstock AR. Examining the profile of high-potency cannabis and its association with severity of cannabis dependence. Psychol Med. 2015;45(15):3181–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Freeman TP, van der Pol P, Kuijpers W, Wisselink J, Das RK, Rigter S, et al. Changes in cannabis potency and first-time admissions to drug treatment: a 16-year study in the Netherlands. Psychol Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Feb 6];1–7. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033291717003877/type/journal_article.

  27. Arterberry BJ, Treloar Padovano H, Foster KT, Zucker RA, Hicks BM. Higher average potency across the United States is associated with progression to first cannabis use disorder symptom. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Dec 19]; Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618308202.

  28. Marconi A, Di Forti M, Lewis CM, Murray RM, Vassos E. Meta-analysis of the association between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. Schizophr Bull [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Apr 16];42(5):1262–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26884547.

  29. Potter DJ, Hammond K, Tuffnell S, Walker C, Di Forti M. Potency of Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids in cannabis in England in 2016: implications for public health and pharmacology. Drug Test Anal [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Feb 28]; Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/dta.2368.

  30. Di Forti M, Sallis H, Allegri F, Trotta A, Ferraro L, Stilo SA, et al. Daily Use, Especially of high-potency cannabis, drives the earlier onset of psychosis in cannabis users. Schizophr Bull [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Jul 25];40(6):1509–17. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24345517.

  31. Monte AA, Shelton SK, Mills E, Saben J, Hopkinson A, Sonn B, et al. Acute illness associated with cannabis use, by route of exposure. Ann Intern Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Apr 25];170(8):531. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30909297.

  32. Schneberk T, Sterling GP, Valenzuela R, Mallon WK. 390 “A Little Dab Will Do Ya”: an emergency department case series related to a new form of “High-Potency” marijuana known as “Wax.” Ann Emerg Med [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Jun 27];64(4):S139. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0196064414010257.

  33. Ramaekers JG. Driving Under the Influence of Cannabis. JAMA [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 May 14];319(14):1433. Available from: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2018.1334.

  34. Hall W. What has research over the past two decades revealed about the adverse health effects of recreational cannabis use? 2014 [cited 2019 Jul 23]; Available from: https://www.drugfree.org.au/images/pdf-files/library/Cannabis/What_has_research_over_the_past_two_decades_revealed_about_the_adverse_health_effects_of_recreational_cannabis_use.pdf.

  35. Eichelberger AH. Marijuana use and driving in Washington State: risk perceptions and behaviors before and after implementation of retail sales. Traffic Inj Prev [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 26];20(1):23–9. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15389588.2018.1530769.

  36. Research W, Division D. Cannabis involvement among drivers in fatal crashes [Internet]. Washington Traffic Safety Commission Toxicology Reports. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 28]. Available from: https://wtsc.wa.gov/research-data/.

  37. RMHIDTA. The legalization of marijuana in Colorado: the impact. Mo Med. 116(6):450.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Lane TJ, Hall W. Traffic fatalities within US states that have legalized recreational cannabis sales and their neighbours. Addiction [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 28];114(5):847–56. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/add.14536.

  39. The Daily – National Cannabis Survey, first quarter 2019 [Internet]. [cited 2019 Jun 28]. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/190502/dq190502a-eng.htm.

  40. CDOT survey reveals new insight on marijuana and driving [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 7]. Available from: https://www.codot.gov/news/2018/april/cdot-survey-reveals-new-insight-on-marijuana-and-driving.

  41. Els C, Jackson TD, Tsuyuki RT, Aidoo H, Wyatt G, Sowah D, et al. Impact of cannabis use on road traffic collisions and safety at work. Can J Addict [Internet]. 2019 Mar [cited 2019 Jun 27];10(1):8–15. Available from: http://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=02024458-201903000-00003.

  42. Khashaba E, El-Helaly M, El-Gilany A, Motawei S, Foda S. Risk factors for non-fatal occupational injuries among construction workers: a case–control study. Toxicol Ind Health [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jun 27];34(2):83–90. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0748233717733853.

  43. Employees and execs are failing drug tests at shocking rates [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 7]. Available from: https://nypost.com/2018/10/20/employees-and-execs-are-failing-drug-tests-at-shocking-rates/.

  44. Quest diagnostics: drug testing index [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 8]. Available from: http://www.questdiagnostics.com/home/physicians/health-trends/drug-testing.

  45. De Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Theunissen EL, Kuypers KPC, Toennes SW, Ramaekers JG. Subjective aggression during alcohol and cannabis intoxication before and after aggression exposure. Psychopharmacology (Berl) [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 24];233(18):3331–40. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27422568.

  46. Norström T, Rossow I. Cannabis use and violence: is there a link? Scand J Public Health [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Jul 22];42(4):358–63. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24608093.

  47. Schoeler T, Monk A, Sami MB, Klamerus E, Foglia E, Brown R, et al. Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;

    Google Scholar 

  48. Smith PH, Homish GG, Leonard KE, Collins RL. Marijuana withdrawal and aggression among a representative sample of U.S. marijuana users. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2019 Jul 24];132(1–2):63–8. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376871613000045?via%3Dihub.

  49. Ansell EB, Laws HB, Roche MJ, Sinha R. Effects of marijuana use on impulsivity and hostility in daily life. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2018 May 7];148:136–42. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25595054.

  50. Douglas KS, Guy LS, Hart SD. Psychosis as a risk factor for violence to others: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2019 Jul 24];135(5):679–706. Available from: http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0016311

  51. Beaudoin M, Potvin S, Dellazizzo L, Luigi M, Giguère C-E, Dumais A. Trajectories of dynamic risk factors as predictors of violence and criminality in patients discharged from mental health services: a longitudinal study using growth mixture modeling. Front Psychiatry [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 4];10:301. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00301/full.

  52. Ware MA, Wang T, Shapiro S, Collet J-P, Boulanger A, Esdaile JM, et al. Cannabis for the management of pain: assessment of safety study (COMPASS). J Pain [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Jan 9];16(12):1233–42. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1526590015008378.

  53. Moulin V, Baumann P, Gholamrezaee M, Alameda L, Palix J, Gasser J, et al. Cannabis, a significant risk factor for violent behavior in the early phase psychosis. Two patterns of interaction of factors increase the risk of violent behavior: cannabis use disorder and impulsivity; cannabis use disorder, lack of insight and treatment adherence. Front Psychiatry [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jan 31];9:294. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00294/full.

  54. Lamsma J, Cahn W, Fazel S, investigators G and N. Use of illicit substances and violent behaviour in psychotic disorders: two nationwide case-control studies and meta-analyses. Psychol Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 30];1–6. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033291719002125/type/journal_article.

  55. Volkow ND, Baler R. Emergency department visits from edible versus inhalable cannabis. Ann Intern Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 6];170(8):569–70. Available from: https://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/2729210/emergency-department-visits-from-edible-versus-inhalable-cannabis.

  56. Chen Y-C, Klig JE. Cannabis-related emergencies in children and teens. Curr Opin Pediatr [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 22];31(3):291–6. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31090567.

  57. Hall KE, Monte AA, Chang T, Fox J, Brevik C, Vigil DI, et al. Mental health–related emergency department visits associated with cannabis in Colorado. Acad Emerg Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jun 27];25(5):526. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29476688.

  58. Bell C, Slim J, Flaten HK, Lindberg G, Arek W, Monte AA. Butane hash oil burns associated with marijuana liberalization in Colorado. J Med Toxicol [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Jan 16];11(4):422–5. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13181-015-0501-0.

  59. Sorensen CJ, DeSanto K, Borgelt L, Phillips KT, Monte AA. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment-a systematic review. J Med Toxicol [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Feb 19];13(1):71–87. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28000146.

  60. Habboushe J, Rubin A, Liu H, Hoffman RS. The prevalence of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome among regular marijuana smokers in an urban public hospital. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Mar 27];122(6):660–2. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/bcpt.12962.

  61. Khattar N, Routsolias JC. Emergency department treatment of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. Am J Ther [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jun 27];25(3):e357–61. Available from: http://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=00045391-201806000-00009.

  62. Nourbakhsh M, Miller A, Gofton J, Jones G, Adeagbo B. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: reports of fatal cases. J Forensic Sci [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jan 3]; Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/1556-4029.13819.

  63. Zimmer DI, McCauley R, Konanki V, Dynako J, Zackariya N, Shariff F, et al. Emergency department and radiological cost of delayed diagnosis of cannabinoid hyperemesis. J Addict [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Apr 30];2019:1–4. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30723570.

  64. Kim HS, Monte AA. Colorado cannabis legalization and its effect on emergency care. Ann Emerg Med [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jun 26];68(1):71–5. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0196064416000056.

  65. Wang GS, Hall K, Vigil D, Banerji S, Monte A, VanDyke M. Marijuana and acute health care contacts in Colorado. Prev Med (Baltim) [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jul 24];104:24–30. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743517301202.

  66. Finn K. The hidden costs of marijuana use in Colorado: one emergency department’s experience. [cited 2018 Feb 6]; Available from: http://www.globaldrugpolicy.org/Issues/Vol 10 Issue 2/Articles/The Hidden Costs of Marijuana Use in Colorado_Final.pdf.

  67. Wang GS, Davies SD, Halmo LS, Sass A, Mistry RD. Impact of marijuana legalization in Colorado on adolescent emergency and urgent care visits. J Adolesc Heal [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Mar 28];63(2):239–41. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054139X18300041.

  68. Delling FN, Vittinghoff E, Dewland TA, Pletcher MJ, Olgin JE, Nah G, et al. Does cannabis legalisation change healthcare utilisation? A population-based study using the healthcare cost and utilisation project in Colorado, USA. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 16];9(5):e027432. Available from: https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/5/e027432.

  69. Is it possible to “overdose” or have a “bad reaction” to marijuana? FAQs. Marijuana. CDC [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 7]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/marijuana/faqs/overdose-bad-reaction.html.

  70. Schneider KE, Tormohlen KN, Brooks-Russell A, Johnson RM, Thrul J. Patterns of co-occurring modes of marijuana use among Colorado high school students. J Adolesc Health [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 24];64(6):807–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30777637.

  71. Department of Health U, Services H. The health consequences of smoking – 50 years of progress: a report of the surgeon general [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 27]. Available from: www.cdc.gov/tobacco.

  72. Tashkin DP, Roth MD. Pulmonary effects of inhaled cannabis smoke. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 22];1–14. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00952990.2019.1627366.

  73. Ghasemiesfe M, Ravi D, Vali M, Korenstein D, Arjomandi M, Frank J, et al. Marijuana use, respiratory symptoms, and pulmonary function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 11];169(2):106–15. Available from: http://annals.org/article.aspx?doi=10.7326/M18-0522.

  74. Bramness JG, von Soest T. A longitudinal study of cannabis use increasing the use of asthma medication in young Norwegian adults. BMC Pulm Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Apr 12];19(1):52. Available from: https://bmcpulmmed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12890-019-0814-x.

  75. Strong DR, Myers MG, Pulvers K, Noble M, Brikmanis K, Doran N. Marijuana use among US tobacco users: findings from wave 1 of the population assessment of tobacco health (PATH) study. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jan 17];186:16–22. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0376871618301121.

  76. Furlow B. US state governments investigate suspected vaping-associated severe lung disease. Lancet Respir Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Sep 5];0(0). Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31477520.

  77. Eighth death linked to vaping as illnesses surge around the United States - CNN [Internet]. [cited 2019 Sep 24]. Available from: https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/19/health/vaping-lung-injury-new-cases-530-bn/index.html.

  78. Layden JE, Ghinai I, Pray I, Kimball A, Layer M, Tenforde M, et al. Pulmonary illness related to E-cigarette use in Illinois and Wisconsin – preliminary report. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Sep 10];NEJMoa1911614. Available from: http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1911614.

  79. Illicit “Pot” oil culprit in vaping disease? Medpage Today [Internet]. [cited 2019 Sep 6]. Available from: https://www.medpagetoday.com/pulmonology/smoking/81924.

  80. He T, Oks M, Esposito M, Steinberg H, Makaryus M. “Tree-in-bloom”: severe acute lung injury induced by vaping cannabis oil. Ann Am Thorac Soc [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Sep 13];14(3):468–70. Available from: http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201612-974LE.

  81. Sommerfeld CG, Weiner DJ, Nowalk A, Larkin A. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis and acute respiratory distress syndrome from E-cigarette use. Pediatrics [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Sep 13];141(6):e20163927. Available from: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/141/6/e20163927.

  82. Singh A, Saluja S, Kumar A, Agrawal S, Thind M, Nanda S, et al. Cardiovascular complications of marijuana and related substances: a review. Cardiol Ther [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 7];7(1):45–59. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29218644.

  83. Pacher P, Steffens S, Haskó G, Schindler TH, Kunos G. Cardiovascular effects of marijuana and synthetic cannabinoids: the good, the bad, and the ugly. Nat Rev Cardiol [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2017 Oct 26]; Available from: http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nrcardio.2017.130.

  84. Patel RS, Kamil SH, Bachu R, Adikey A, Ravat V, Kaur M, et al. Marijuana use and acute myocardial infarction: a systematic review of published cases in the literature. Trends Cardiovasc Med [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 29]; Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31439383.

  85. Goyal H, Awad HH, Ghali JK. Role of cannabis in cardiovascular disorders. J Thorac Dis [Internet]. 2017 Jul [cited 2019 Jul 25];9(7):2079–92. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28840009.

  86. Chami T, Kim CH. Cannabis abuse and elevated risk of myocardial infarction in the young: a population-based study. Mayo Clin Proc [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 8];94(8):1647–9. Available from: https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(19)30464-1/fulltext.

  87. Kalla A, Krishnamoorthy PM, Gopalakrishnan A, Figueredo VM. Cannabis use predicts risks of heart failure and cerebrovascular accidents. J Cardiovasc Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Apr 24];19(9):480–4. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29879084.

  88. Oehha. Evidence on the carcinogenicity of marijuana smoke California Environmental Protection Agency [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2019 Jul 26]. Available from: https://oehha.ca.gov/media/downloads/proposition-65/chemicals/finalmjsmokehid.pdf.

  89. Huang Y-HJ, Zhang Z-F, Tashkin DP, Feng B, Straif K, Hashibe M. An epidemiologic review of marijuana and cancer: an update. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Aug 5];24(1):15–31. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25587109.

  90. Zhang Z, Morgenstern H, Spitz M, Tashkin D, Yu G, Marshall J. Marijuana use and increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Aug 5];8(12):1071–8. Available from: http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/24/1/15.short#.

  91. Park S, Myung S-K. Cannabis smoking and risk of cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies. J Glob Oncol [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jul 26];(4_suppl_2):196s. Available from: http://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/jgo.18.79302.

  92. Volkow ND, Baler RD, Compton WM, Weiss SRB. Adverse health effects of marijuana use. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Jul 26];370(23):2219–27. Available from: http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMra1402309.

  93. Lacson JCA, Carroll JD, Tuazon E, Castelao EJ, Bernstein L, Cortessis VK. Population-based case-control study of recreational drug use and testis cancer risk confirms an association between marijuana use and nonseminoma risk. Cancer [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2019 Jul 26];118(21):5374–83. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/cncr.27554

  94. Callaghan RC, Allebeck P, Akre O, McGlynn KA, Sidorchuk A. Cannabis use and incidence of testicular cancer: a 42-year follow-up of Swedish men between 1970 and 2011. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jul 26];26(11):1644–52. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29093004.

  95. The health effects of cannabis and cannabinoids [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; 2017 [cited 2019 Jul 26]. Available from: https://www.nap.edu/catalog/24625.

  96. Fronczak CM, Kim ED, Barqawi AB. The insults of illicit drug use on male fertility. J Androl [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2019 Aug 13];33(4):515–28. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.2164/jandrol.110.011874

  97. Hsiao P, Clavijo RI. Adverse effects of cannabis on male reproduction. Eur Urol Focus [Internet]. 2018 May [cited 2019 Aug 6];4(3):324–8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2405456918302256.

  98. Payne KS, Mazur DJ, Hotaling JM, Pastuszak AW. Cannabis and male fertility: a systematic review. J Urol [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 13];101097JU0000000000000248. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30916627.

  99. Nassan FL, Arvizu M, Mínguez-Alarcón L, Williams PL, Attaman J, Petrozza J, et al. Marijuana smoking and markers of testicular function among men from a fertility centre. Hum Reprod [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 13];1–9. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/DocumentLibrary/humrep/PR_Papers/dez002.pdf.

  100. Brents LK. Marijuana, the endocannabinoid system and the female reproductive system. Yale J Biol Med [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Aug 13];89(2):175–91. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27354844.

  101. Jukic AMZ, Weinberg CR, Baird DD, Wilcox AJ. Lifestyle and reproductive factors associated with follicular phase length. J Womens Health (Larchmt) [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2019 Aug 13];16(9):1340–7. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18001191.

  102. Ilnitsky S, Van Uum S. Marijuana and fertility. CMAJ [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 13];191(23):E638. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31182459.

  103. Richter L, Pugh BS, Ball SA. Assessing the risk of marijuana use disorder among adolescents and adults who use marijuana. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Aug 7];43(3):247–60. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/00952990.2016.1164711.

  104. WHO. The health and social effects of nonmedical cannabis use. WHO [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Aug 7]; Available from: https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/cannabis_report/en/index5.html.

  105. Hasin DS. US Epidemiology of cannabis use and associated problems. Neuropsychopharmacology [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Aug 7];43(1):195–212. Available from: http://www.nature.com/articles/npp2017198.

  106. Hasin DS, Shmulewitz D, Sarvet AL. Time trends in US cannabis use and cannabis use disorders overall and by sociodemographic subgroups: a narrative review and new findings. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 7];1–21. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30870044.

  107. Compton WM, Han B, Jones CM, Blanco C, Hughes A. Marijuana use and use disorders in adults in the USA, 2002–14: analysis of annual cross-sectional surveys. The Lancet Psychiatry [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jun 28];3(10):954–64. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2215036616302085.

  108. Davenport S. Falling rates of marijuana dependence among heavy users. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jun 28];191:52–5. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30077891

  109. Manthey J. Cannabis use in Europe: current trends and public health concerns. Int J Drug Policy [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 22];68:93–6. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31030057.

  110. Montanari L, Guarita B, Mounteney J, Zipfel N, Simon R. Cannabis use among people entering drug treatment in Europe: a growing phenomenon? Eur Addict Res [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 May 11];23:113–21. Available from: https://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/475810.

  111. Curran HV, Freeman TP, Mokrysz C, Lewis DA, Morgan CJA, Parsons LH. Keep off the grass? Cannabis, cognition and addiction. Nat Rev Neurosci [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 24];17(5):293–306. Available from: http://www.nature.com/articles/nrn.2016.28.

  112. Bonnet U, Preuss UW. The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: current insights. Subst Abuse Rehabil [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Aug 13];8:9–37. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28490916.

  113. Patel J, Marwaha R. Cannabis use disorder [Internet]. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 7]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30844158.

  114. Livne O, Shmulewitz D, Lev-Ran S, Hasin DS. DSM-5 cannabis withdrawal syndrome: demographic and clinical correlates in U.S. adults. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Feb 27];195:170–7. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618307142.

  115. Volkow ND, Swanson JM, Evins AE, DeLisi LE, Meier MH, Gonzalez R, et al. Effects of cannabis use on human behavior, including cognition, motivation, and psychosis: a review. JAMA Psychiatry [Internet]. 2016;73(3):292. Available from: http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.3278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Lawn W, Freeman T, Pope R, Joye A, Harvey L, Hindocha C. Acute and chronic effects of cannabinoids on effort-related decision-making and reward learning: an evaluation of the cannabis ‘amotivational’ hypotheses. Psychopharmacol. 233(19–20):3537–52.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Duperrouzel JC, Granja K, Pacheco-Colón I, Gonzalez R. Adverse Effects of cannabis use on neurocognitive functioning: a systematic review of meta- analytic studies. J Dual Diagn [Internet]. 2019 Jun 22 [cited 2019 Jun 26];1–15. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31e232216.

  118. Gonzalez R, Pacheco-Colón I, Duperrouzel JC, Hawes SW. Does cannabis use cause declines in neuropsychological functioning? A review of longitudinal studies. J Int Neuropsychol Soc [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jul 25];23(9–10):893–902. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1355617717000789/type/journal_article.

  119. Silins E, Fergusson DM, Patton GC, Horwood LJ, Olsson CA, Hutchinson DM, et al. Adolescent substance use and educational attainment: an integrative data analysis comparing cannabis and alcohol from three Australasian cohorts. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;156:90–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Thompson K, Leadbeater B, Ames M, Merrin GJ. Associations between marijuana use trajectories and educational and occupational success in young adulthood. Prev Sci [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 28];20(2):257–69. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11121-018-0904-7.

  121. Wright AC, Krieg JM. Getting into the weeds: does legal marijuana access blunt academic performance in college? Econ Inq [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 11]; Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/ecin.12743.

  122. Suerken CK, Reboussin BA, Egan KL, Sutfin EL, Wagoner KG, Spangler J, et al. Marijuana use trajectories and academic outcomes among college students. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jan 24];162:137–45. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037687161600140X.

  123. Beverly HK, Castro Y, Opara I. Age of first marijuana use and its impact on education attainment and employment status. J Drug Issues [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 23];49(2):228–37. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31341332.

  124. Radoman M, Hoeppner SS, Schuster RM, Evins AE, Gilman JM. Marijuana use and major depressive disorder are additively associated with reduced verbal learning and altered cortical thickness. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Mar 28]; Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30809764.

  125. Marie O, Zölitz U. ‘High’ achievers? Cannabis access and academic performance. Rev Econ Stud [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Aug 14]; Available from: https://academic.oup.com/restud/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/restud/rdx020.

  126. Scott JC, Slomiak ST, Jones JD, Rosen AFG, Moore TM, Gur RC. Association of cannabis with cognitive functioning in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry [Internet]. [cited 2018 Apr 19]; Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2678214.

  127. Meier MH, Caspi A, Ambler A, Harrington H, Houts R, Keefe RSE, et al. Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proc Natl Acad Sci [Internet]. 2012;109(40):E2657–64.. Available from: http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1206820109.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Jackson NJ, Isen JD, Khoddam R, Irons D, Tuvblad C, Iacono WG, et al. Impact of adolescent marijuana use on intelligence: results from two longitudinal twin studies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 25];113(5):E500–8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26787878.

  129. Mokrysz C, Landy R, Gage S, Munafò M, Roiser J, Curran H. Are IQ and educational outcomes in teenagers related to their cannabis use? A prospective cohort study. J Psychopharmacol [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 25];30(2):159–68. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0269881115622241.

  130. Chye Y, Christensen E, Yücel M. Cannabis use in adolescence: a review of neuroimaging findings. J Dual Diagn [Internet]. 2019 Jul 16 [cited 2019 Jul 25];1–23. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15504263.2019.1636171.

  131. Lorenzetti V, Solowij N, Fornito A, Lubman DI, Yucel M. The association between regular cannabis exposure and alterations of human brain morphology: an updated review of the literature. Curr Pharm Des [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Jul 25];20(13):2138–67. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23829361.

  132. Moore TH, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes TR, Jones PB, Burke M, et al. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2019 Aug 13];370(9584):319–28. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17662880.

  133. Hall W, Degenhardt L. Cannabis use and the risk of developing a psychotic disorder. World Psychiatry [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2019 Jul 26];7(2):68–71. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18560513.

  134. Mustonen A, Niemelä S, Nordström T, Murray GK, Mäki P, Jääskeläinen E, et al. Adolescent cannabis use, baseline prodromal symptoms and the risk of psychosis. Br J Psychiatry [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Mar 23];212(04):227–33. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29557758.

  135. Nesvåg R, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Gillespie NA, Knudsen GP, Bramness JG, Kendler KS, et al. Genetic and environmental contributions to the association between cannabis use and psychotic-like experiences in young adult twins. Schizophr Bull [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 26];43(3):sbw101. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/schbul/sbw101.

  136. Di Forti M, Morgan C, Dazzan P, Pariante C, Mondelli V, Marques TR, et al. High-potency cannabis and the risk of psychosis. Br J Psychiatry [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2019 Jul 25];195(6):488–91. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007125000251192/type/journal_article.

  137. D’Souza DC, Perry E, MacDougall L, Ammerman Y, Cooper T, Wu Y, et al. The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology [Internet]. 2004 [cited 2019 Aug 8];29(8):1558–72. Available from: http://www.nature.com/articles/1300496.

  138. Morrison PD, Zois V, McKeown DA, Lee TD, Holt DW, Powell JF, et al. The acute effects of synthetic intravenous Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on psychosis, mood and cognitive functioning. Psychol Med [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2019 Jul 26];39(10):1607. Available from: http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0033291709005522.

  139. Di Forti M, Quattrone D, Freeman TP, Tripoli G, Gayer-Anderson C, Quigley H, et al. The contribution of cannabis use to variation in the incidence of psychotic disorder across Europe (EU-GEI): a multicentre case-control study. The lancet Psychiatry [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 25];6(5):427–36. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30902669.

  140. Witton J, Arseneault L, Cannon M, Murray R. Cannabis as a causal factor for psychosis – a review of the evidence. In: Search for the causes of schizophrenia [Internet]. Heidelberg: Steinkopff; 2004 [cited 2019 Jul 26]. p. 133–49. Available from: http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.1007/978-3-7985-1953-4_9.

  141. Kuepper R, Morrison PD, van Os J, Murray RM, Kenis G, Henquet C. Does dopamine mediate the psychosis-inducing effects of cannabis? A review and integration of findings across disciplines. Schizophr Res [Internet]. 2010 [cited 2019 Jul 26];121(1–3):107–17. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0920996410013526.

  142. D’Souza DC, Radhakrishnan R, Sherif M, Cortes-Briones J, Cahill J, Gupta S, et al. Cannabinoids and psychosis. [cited 2019 Jul 26]; Available from: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/ben/cpd/2016/00000022/00000042/art00005.

  143. Schoeler T, Theobald D, Pingault J-B, Farrington DP, Jennings WG, Piquero AR, et al. Continuity of cannabis use and violent offending over the life course. Psychol Med [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 22];46(8):1663–77. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033291715003001/type/journal_article.

  144. Setién-Suero E, Neergaard K, Ortiz-García de la Foz V, Suárez-Pinilla P, Martínez-García O, Crespo-Facorro B, et al. Stopping cannabis use benefits outcome in psychosis: findings from 10-year follow-up study in the PAFIP -cohort. Acta Psychiatr Scand [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 8];acps.13081. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31381129.

  145. Colizzi M, Burnett N, Costa R, De Agostini M, Griffin J, Bhattacharyya S. Longitudinal assessment of the effect of cannabis use on hospital readmission rates in early psychosis: a 6-year follow-up in an inpatient cohort. Psychiatry Res [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Sep 12];268:381–7. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178118302889.

  146. Giordano GN, Ohlsson H, Sundquist K, Sundquist J, Kendler KS. The association between cannabis abuse and subsequent schizophrenia: a Swedish national co-relative control study. Psychol Med [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2018 Aug 22];45(2):407–14. Available from: http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0033291714001524.

  147. Starzer MSK, Nordentoft M, Hjorthøj C. Rates and predictors of conversion to schizophrenia or bipolar disorder following substance-induced psychosis. Am J Psychiatry [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2017 Dec 18];appi.ajp.2017.1. Available from: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17020223.

  148. Kendler KS, Ohlsson H, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Prediction of onset of substance-induced psychotic disorder and its progression to schizophrenia in a Swedish national sample. Am J Psychiatry [Internet]. 2019 May 6 [cited 2019 Jul 22];appi.ajp.2019.1. Available from: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.18101217.

  149. Niemi-Pynttäri JA, Sund R, Putkonen H, Vorma H, Wahlbeck K, Pirkola SP. Substance-induced psychoses converting into schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2018 May 7];74(01):e94–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23419236.

  150. Gobbi G, Atkin T, Zytynski T, Wang S, Askari S, Boruff J, et al. Association of cannabis use in adolescence and risk of depression, anxiety, and suicidality in young adulthood. JAMA Psychiatry [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 16];76(4):426. Available from: http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.4500.

  151. Sellers CM, Diaz-Valdes Iriarte A, Wyman Battalen A, O’Brien KHM. Alcohol and marijuana use as daily predictors of suicide ideation and attempts among adolescents prior to psychiatric hospitalization. Psychiatry Res [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 9];273:672–7. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165178118323321.

  152. Silins E, Horwood LJ, Patton GC, Fergusson DM, Olsson CA, Hutchinson DM, et al. Young adult sequelae of adolescent cannabis use: an integrative analysis. Lancet Psychiatry [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Jul 26];1(4):286–93. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2215036614703074.

  153. Carvalho AF, Stubbs B, Vancampfort D, Kloiber S, Maes M, Firth J, et al. Cannabis use and suicide attempts among 86,254 adolescents aged 12-15 years from 21 low- and middle-income countries. Eur Psychiatry [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 8];56:8–13. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0924933818301913.

  154. Adkisson K, Cunningham KC, Dedert EA, Dennis MF, Calhoun PS, Elbogen EB, et al. Cannabis use disorder and post-deployment suicide attempts in Iraq/Afghanistan-Era veterans. Arch Suicide Res [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Aug 9];1–10. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13811118.2018.1488638.

  155. Center for Behavioral Health Statistics S. Results from the 2013 national survey on drug use and health: summary of national findings [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 15]. Available from: http://store.samhsa.gov/home.

  156. Chadi N, Schroeder R, Jensen JW, Levy S. Association between electronic cigarette use and marijuana use among adolescents and young adults. JAMA Pediatr [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 13];e192574. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2748383.

  157. Audrain-Mcgovern J, Stone MD, Barrington-Trimis J, Unger JB, Leventhal AM. Adolescent E-cigarette, hookah, and conventional cigarette use and subsequent marijuana use. Pediatrics [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Aug 16];142(3):20173616. Available from: www.aappublications.org/news.

  158. Banks DE, Rowe AT, Mpofu P, Zapolski TCB. Trends in typologies of concurrent alcohol, marijuana, and cigarette use among US adolescents: an ecological examination by sex and race/ethnicity. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Aug 15];179:71–7. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28756102.

  159. Schauer GL, Berg CJ, Kegler MC, Donovan DM, Windle M. Assessing the overlap between tobacco and marijuana: trends in patterns of co-use of tobacco and marijuana in adults from 2003–2012. Addict Behav [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Aug 15];49:26–32. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460315001768.

  160. Schauer G, King B, Bunnell R, Promoff G, McAfee T. Toking, vaping, and eating for health or fun: marijuana use patterns in adults, U.S. Am J Prev Med. 2014;50(1):1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  161. Kandel D. Stages in adolescent involvement in drug use. Science (80- ) [Internet]. 1975 [cited 2019 Aug 16];190(4217):912–4. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1188374.

  162. Keyes KM, Rutherford C, Miech R. Historical trends in the grade of onset and sequence of cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use among adolescents from 1976–2016: implications for “Gateway” patterns in adolescence. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 16];194:51–8. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618307555.

  163. Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, Sawyer SM, Lynskey M. Reverse gateways? Frequent cannabis use as a predictor of tobacco initiation and nicotine dependence. Addiction [Internet]. 2005 [cited 2019 Aug 16];100(10):1518–25. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16185213.

  164. Schauer GL, Rosenberry ZR, Peters EN. Marijuana and tobacco co-administration in blunts, spliffs, and mulled cigarettes: a systematic literature review. Addict Behav [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jan 9];64:200–11. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306460316303306.

  165. Fix BV, Smith D, O’Connor R, Heckman BW, Willemsen MC, Cummings M, et al. Cannabis use among a nationally representative cross-sectional sample of smokers and non-smokers in the Netherlands: results from the 2015 ITC Netherlands Gold Magic Survey. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 16];9(3):E024497. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30833306.

  166. Akbar SA, Tomko RL, Salazar CA, Squeglia LM, McClure EA. Tobacco and cannabis co-use and interrelatedness among adults. Addict Behav [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Feb 28];90:354–61. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460318305082?via%3Dihub.

  167. Goodwin RD, Pacek LR, Copeland J, Moeller SJ, Dierker L, Weinberger A, et al. Trends in Daily Cannabis Use Among Cigarette Smokers: United States, 2002-2014. Am J Public Health [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2017 Dec 18];108(1):137–42. Available from: http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304050.

  168. Pacek LR, Copeland J, Dierker L, Cunningham CO, Martins SS, Goodwin RD. Among whom is cigarette smoking declining in the United States? The impact of cannabis use status, 2002–2015. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Jun 5];0(0). Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0376871618301728.

  169. Weinberger AH, Delnevo CD, Wyka K, Gbedemah M, Lee J, Copeland J, et al. Cannabis use is associated with increased risk of cigarette smoking initiation, persistence, and relapse among adults in the United States. Nicotine Tob Res [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 23]; Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31112595.

  170. Caulkins JP (Jonathan P, Kilmer B, Kleiman M. Marijuana legalization: what everyone needs to know [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 12]. 284 p. Available from: https://books.google.no/books/about/Marijuana_Legalization.html?id=3UYnDAAAQBAJ&source=kp_cover&redir_esc=y.

  171. Tucker JS, Pedersen ER, Seelam R, Dunbar MS, Shih RA, D’Amico EJ. Types of cannabis and tobacco/nicotine co-use and associated outcomes in young adulthood. Psychol Addict Behav [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Apr 30]; Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30985164.

  172. Subbaraman MS. Substitution and complementarity of alcohol and cannabis: a review of the literature. Subst Use Misuse [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Nov 16];51(11):1399–414. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27249324.

  173. Ozgo D. Impact of retail marijuana legalization on alcohol sales in Colorado, Washington state and Oregon David Ozgo SVP, Strategic Analysis and Economic Affairs Distilled Spirits Council [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Mar 5]. Available from: https://www.distilledspirits.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Recreational-Marijuana-Impact-Study.pdf.

  174. Subbaraman MS, Kerr WC. Simultaneous versus concurrent use of alcohol and cannabis in the National Alcohol Survey. Alcohol Clin Exp Res [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Jan 7];39(5):872–9. Available from.: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25872596.

  175. Pape H, Rossow I, Storvoll EE. Under double influence: assessment of simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use in general youth populations. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2018 Nov 16];101(1–2):69–73. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19095380.

  176. Egan KL, Cox MJ, Suerken CK, Reboussin BA, Song EY, Wagoner KG, et al. More drugs, more problems? Simultaneous use of alcohol and marijuana at parties among youth and young adults. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 15];202:69–75. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376871619302121.

  177. Terry-McElrath YM, O’Malley PM, Johnston LD. Alcohol and marijuana use patterns associated with unsafe driving among U.S. high school seniors: high use frequency, concurrent use, and simultaneous use. J Stud Alcohol Drugs [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Aug 15];75(3):378–89. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24766749.

  178. Linden-Carmichael AN, Stamates AL, Lau-Barraco C. Simultaneous use of alcohol and marijuana: patterns and individual differences. Subst Use Misuse [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 14];1–11. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10826084.2019.1638407.

  179. Yurasek AM, Aston ER, Metrik J. Co-use of alcohol and cannabis: a review. Curr Addict Reports [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jan 7];4(2):184–93. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40429-017-0149-8.

  180. Blanco C, Hasin DS, Wall MM, Flórez-Salamanca L, Hoertel N, Wang S, et al. Cannabis use and risk of psychiatric disorders. JAMA Psychiatry [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Mar 27];73(4):388. Available from: http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.3229.

  181. Green KM, Reboussin BA, Pacek LR, Storr CL, Mojtabai R, Cullen BA, et al. The effects of marijuana use on transitions through stages of alcohol involvement for men and women in the NESARC I and II. Subst Use Misuse [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 14];1–10. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10826084.2019.1638408.

  182. Cohn AM, Johnson AL, Rose SW, Pearson JL, Villanti AC, Stanton C. Population-level patterns and mental health and substance use correlates of alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use and co-use in US young adults and adults: results from the population assessment for tobacco and health. Am J Addict [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Aug 15];27(6):491–500. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/ajad.12766.

  183. McPartland JM. A review of cannabis diseases. J Int Hemp Assoc [Internet]. 1996 [cited 2019 Aug 20];3(1):19–23. Available from: https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19971004184.

  184. Thompson GR, Tuscano JM, Dennis M, Singapuri A, Libertini S, Gaudino R, et al. A microbiome assessment of medical marijuana. Clin Microbiol Infect [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Aug 20];23(4):269–70. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27956269.

  185. Ruchlemer R, Amit-Kohn M, Raveh D, Hanuš L. Inhaled medicinal cannabis and the immunocompromised patient. [cited 2019 Aug 20]; Available from: https://www.mascc.org/assets/Pain_Center/2015_March/march2015-11.pdf.

  186. McPartland JM, Pruitt PL. Medical marijuana and its use by the immunocompromised. Altern Ther Health Med [Internet]. 1997 [cited 2019 Aug 20];3(3):39–45. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9141290.

  187. Cescon DW, Page A V, Richardson S, Moore MJ, Boerner S, Gold WL. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis associated with marijuana use in a man with colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2019 Aug 20];26(13):2214–5. Available from: http://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2007.15.2777.

  188. Chatkin JM, Zani-Silva L, Ferreira I, Zamel N. Cannabis-associated asthma and allergies. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 20];56(2):196–206. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28921405.

  189. McPartland JM, McKernan KJ. Contaminants of concern in cannabis: microbes, heavy metals and pesticides. In: Cannabis sativa L – botany and biotechnology [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017 [cited 2019 Aug 20]. p. 457–74. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-54564-6_22.

  190. Martyny JW, Serrano KA, Schaeffer JW, Van Dyke M V. Potential exposures associated with indoor marijuana growing operations. J Occup Environ Hyg [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2019 Aug 20];10(11):622–39. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24116667.

  191. Cuypers E, Vanhove W, Gotink J, Bonneure A, Van Damme P, Tytgat J. The use of pesticides in Belgian illicit indoor cannabis plantations. Forensic Sci Int [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Aug 20];277:59–65. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28609661.

  192. Busse F, Omidi L, Leichtle A, Windgassen M, Kluge E, Stumvoll M. Lead poisoning due to adulterated marijuana. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2019 Aug 20];358(15):1641–2. Available from: http://www.nejm.org/doi/abs/10.1056/NEJMc0707784.

  193. Bloor RN, Wang TS, Španěl P, Smith D. Ammonia release from heated ‘street’ cannabis leaf and its potential toxic effects on cannabis users. Addiction [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2019 Aug 20];103(10):1671–7. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18705690.

  194. Gilbert CR, Baram M, Cavarocchi NC. “Smoking wet”: respiratory failure related to smoking tainted marijuana cigarettes. Texas Hear Inst J [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2019 Aug 20];40(1):64–7. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23466531.

  195. Davidson M, Reed S, Oosthuizen J, O’Donnell G, Gaur P, Cross M, et al. Occupational health and safety in cannabis production: an Australian perspective. Int J Occup Environ Health [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Aug 20];24(3–4):75–85. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30281413.

  196. Victory KR, Couch J, Lowe B, Green BJ. Notes from the field: occupational hazards associated with harvesting and processing cannabis – Washington, 2015–2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Aug 20];67(8):259–60. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/wr/mm6708a7.htm?s_cid=mm6708a7_w.

  197. Secretary of State – Audits Division O. Oregon’s framework for regulating marijuana should be strengthened to better mitigate diversion risk and improve laboratory testing. Oregon Liquor Control Commission, Oregon Health Authority. Oregon’s framework for regulating marijuana should be strengthened to better mitigate diversion risk and improve laboratory testing report highlights [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Sep 17]. Available from: https://sos.oregon.gov/audits/Documents/2019-04.pdf.

  198. Daley DC. Family and social aspects of substance use disorders and treatment. J Food Drug Anal [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2019 Aug 7];21(4):S73–6. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25214748.

  199. Lander L, Howsare J, Byrne M. The impact of substance use disorders on families and children: from theory to practice. Soc Work Public Health [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2019 Aug 7];28(3–4):194–205. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23731414.

  200. Ólafsdóttir J, Hrafnsdóttir S, Orjasniemi T. Depression, anxiety, and stress from substance-use disorder among family members in Iceland. Nord Stud Alcohol Drugs [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Aug 7];35(3):165–78. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1455072518766129.

  201. Wang X, Derakhshandeh R, Liu J, Narayan S, Nabavizadeh P, Le S, et al. One minute of marijuana secondhand smoke exposure substantially impairs vascular endothelial function. J Am Heart Assoc [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Dec 19];5(8). Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27464788.

  202. Wilson KM, Torok MR, Wei B, Wang L, Lowary M, Blount BC. Marijuana and tobacco coexposure in hospitalized children. Pediatrics [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jul 23];142(6):e20180820. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30455340.

  203. Posis A, Bellettiere J, Liles S, Alcaraz J, Nguyen B, Berardi V, et al. Indoor cannabis smoke and children’s health. Prev Med Reports [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 14];14:100853. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335519300385#!.

  204. Correlation between secondhand marijuana and tobacco smoke exposure and children ED visits: new research examines the impact of second hand smoke from tobacco to understand marijuana’s impact on children – ScienceDaily [Internet]. [cited 2018 May 8]. Available from: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/05/180505091833.htm.

  205. Glantz SA, Halpern-Felsher B, Springer ML. Marijuana, secondhand smoke, and social acceptability. JAMA Intern Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 11];178(1):13. Available from: http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.5301.

  206. Young-Wolff KC, Sarovar V, Tucker L-Y, Conway A, Alexeeff S, Weisner C, et al. Self-reported daily, weekly, and monthly cannabis use among women before and during pregnancy. JAMA Netw Open [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 9];2(7):e196471. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2738343.

  207. Young-Wolff KC, Tucker L-Y, Alexeeff S, Armstrong MA, Conway A, Weisner C, et al. Trends in self-reported and biochemically tested marijuana use among pregnant females in California from 2009-2016. JAMA [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 May 7];318(24):2490. Available from: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2017.17225.

  208. Young-Wolff KC, Sarovar V, Tucker L-Y, Avalos LA, Alexeeff S, Conway A, et al. Trends in marijuana use among pregnant women with and without nausea and vomiting in pregnancy, 2009–2016. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 22];196:66–70. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30711893.

  209. Volkow ND, Han B, Compton WM, McCance-Katz EF. Self-reported medical and nonmedical cannabis use among pregnant women in the United States. JAMA [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 25]; Available from: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2019.7982.

  210. Campo J. Washington State Office of Financial Management maternal and newborn inpatient stays with a substance use or use-related diagnosis [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 22]. Available from: https://www.ofm.wa.gov/sites/default/files/public/legacy/researchbriefs/2016/brief075.pdf.

  211. Brown QL, Sarvet AL, Shmulewitz D, Martins SS, Wall MM, Hasin DS. Trends in marijuana use among pregnant and nonpregnant reproductive-aged women, 2002-2014. JAMA [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jan 16];317(2):207. Available from: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2016.17383.

  212. Ko JY, Farr SL, Tong VT, Creanga AA, Callaghan WM. Prevalence and patterns of marijuana use among pregnant and nonpregnant women of reproductive age. Am J Obstet Gynecol [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Jul 22];213(2):201.e1–201.e10. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25772211.

  213. Petrangelo A, Czuzoj-Shulman N, Balayla J, Abenhaim HA. Cannabis abuse or dependence during pregnancy: a population-based cohort study on 12 million births. J Obstet Gynaecol Canada [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 22];41(5):623–30. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1701216318307059.

  214. Jansson LM, Jordan CJ, Velez ML. Perinatal marijuana use and the developing child. JAMA [Internet]. 2018 Aug 14 [cited 2018 Sep 5];320(6):545. Available from: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2018.8401

  215. Corsi DJ, Walsh L, Weiss D, Hsu H, El-Chaar D, Hawken S, et al. Association between self-reported prenatal cannabis use and maternal, perinatal, and neonatal outcomes. JAMA [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 23];322(2):145. Available from: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2019.8734.

  216. Gunn JKL, Rosales CB, Center KE, Nuñez A, Gibson SJ, Christ C, et al. Prenatal exposure to cannabis and maternal and child health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Aug 21];6(4):e009986. Available from: http://bmjopen.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009986.

  217. Breit KR, Zamudio B, Thomas JD. The effects of alcohol and cannabinoid exposure during the brain growth spurt on behavioral development in rats. Birth Defects Res [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 24];111(12):760–74. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bdr2.1487.

  218. Boa-Amponsem O, Zhang C, Mukhopadhyay S, Ardrey I, Cole GJ. Ethanol and cannabinoids interact to alter behavior in a zebrafish fetal alcohol spectrum disorder model. Birth Defects Res [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jul 24];111(12):775–88. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bdr2.1458.

  219. Wright HR, Warrick CR, Kuyat JR, Rodriguez JW, Lugo, JM, McLaughlin RJ. Maternal cannabis vapor exposure dose-dependently impairs behavioral flexibility [Internet]. [cited 2019 Jul 22]. Available from: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/5046724-WSU-Rats.html.

  220. Bertrand KA, Hanan NJ, Honerkamp-Smith G, Best BM, Chambers CD. Marijuana use by breastfeeding mothers and cannabinoid concentrations in breast milk. Pediatrics [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Jan 9];142(3):e20181076. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30150212.

  221. Mourh J, Rowe H. Marijuana and breastfeeding: applicability of the current literature to clinical practice. Breastfeed Med [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jan 11];12(10):582–96. Available from: http://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/bfm.2017.0020.

  222. Jarlenski M, Koma JW, Zank J, Bodnar LM, Bogen DL, Chang JC. Trends in perception of risk of regular marijuana use among US pregnant and nonpregnant reproductive-aged women. Am J Obstet Gynecol [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Aug 7];217(6):705–7. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28843740.

  223. Bayrampour H, Zahradnik M, Lisonkova S, Janssen P. Women’s perspectives about cannabis use during pregnancy and the postpartum period: an integrative review. Prev Med (Baltim) [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jan 24];119:17–23. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743518303773.

  224. Dickson B, Mansfield C, Guiahi M, Allshouse AA, Borgelt LM, Sheeder J, et al. Recommendations from cannabis dispensaries about first-trimester cannabis use. Obstet Gynecol [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 May 11];1. Available from: http://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=00006250-900000000-98083.

  225. Blohm E, Sell P, Neavyn M. Cannabinoid toxicity in pediatrics. Curr Opin Pediatr [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 22];31(2):256–61. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30694824.

  226. Leubitz A, Spiller HA, Jolliff H, Casavant M. Prevalence and clinical characteristics of unintentional ingestion of marijuana in children younger than 6 years in states with and without legalized marijuana laws. Pediatr Emerg Care [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 12];1. Available from: http://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=00006565-900000000-98140.

  227. Claudet I, Mouvier S, Labadie M, Manin C, Michard-Lenoir A-P, Eyer D, et al. Unintentional cannabis intoxication in toddlers. Pediatrics [Internet]. 2017 Sep 1 [cited 2019 Jul 23];140(3):e20170017. Available from: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/140/3/e20170017.

  228. Brooks-Russell A, Hall K, Peterson A, Graves J, Van Dyke M. Cannabis in homes with children: use and storage practices in a legalised state. Inj Prev [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 6];injuryprev-2019-043318. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31371385.

  229. Wang GS, Le Lait M-C, Deakyne SJ, Bronstein AC, Bajaj L, Roosevelt G. Unintentional pediatric exposures to marijuana in Colorado, 2009-2015. JAMA Pediatr [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 23];170(9):e160971. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27454910.

  230. Onders B, Casavant MJ, Spiller HA, Chounthirath T, Smith GA. Marijuana exposure among children younger than six years in the United States. Clin Pediatr (Phila) [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Jul 23];55(5):428–36. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0009922815589912.

  231. Whitehill JM, Harrington C, Lang CJ, Chary M, Bhutta WA, Burns MM. Incidence of pediatric cannabis exposure among children and teenagers aged 0 to 19 years before and after medical marijuana legalization in Massachusetts. JAMA Netw Open [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 22];2(8):e199456. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2748051.

  232. Erkelens JL, Hazekamp A. That which we call Indica, by any other name would smell as sweet an essay on the history of the term Indica and the taxonomical conflict between the monotypic and polytypic views of Cannabis What’s in a name? [Internet]. Vol. 9, Cannabinoids. 2014 [cited 2019 Aug 20]. Available from: www.cannabis-med.org.

  233. INCB. The therapeutic use of cannabis. Available from: https://www.incb.org/documents/News/Alerts/Alert_on_Control_of_Narcotic_Drugs_June_2017.pdf.

  234. Emcdda. Questions and answers for policymaking Medical use of cannabis and cannabinoids [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Sep 12]. Available from: http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/10171/20185584_TD0618186ENN_PDF.pdf.

  235. Marijuana and cannabinoids. NCCIH [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 12]. Available from: https://nccih.nih.gov/health/marijuana.

  236. Stockings E, Campbell G, Hall WD, Nielsen S, Zagic D, Rahman R, et al. Cannabis and cannabinoids for the treatment of people with chronic noncancer pain conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled and observational studies. Pain [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 May 3];159(10):1932–54. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29847469.

  237. Häuser W, Welsch P, Klose P, Radbruch L, Fitzcharles M-A. Efficacy, tolerability and safety of cannabis-based medicines for cancer pain. Der Schmerz [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Sep 23]; Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31073761.

  238. Hill KP. Medical use of cannabis in 2019. JAMA [Internet]. 2019 Aug 9 [cited 2019 Sep 2]; Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2748398.

  239. Marijuana as medicine [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 20]. Available from: https://d14rmgtrwzf5a.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/marijuanamedicinedrugfacts_july2019_.pdf.

  240. Fitzcharles M-A, Niaki OZ, Hauser W, Hazlewood G. Position statement: a pragmatic approach for medical cannabis and patients with rheumatic diseases. J Rheumatol [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 3];46(5):532–8. Available from: http://www.jrheum.org/lookup/doi/10.3899/jrheum.181120.

  241. Klumpers LE, Thacker DL. A brief background on cannabis: from plant to medical indications. J AOAC Int [Internet]. 2019 Mar 1 [cited 2019 Aug 20];102(2):412–20. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30139415.

  242. Thomas BF, Pollard GT. Preparation and distribution of cannabis and cannabis-derived dosage formulations for investigational and therapeutic use in the United States. Front Pharmacol [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Aug 21];7:285. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27630566.

  243. Bachhuber MA, Saloner B, Cunningham CO, Barry CL. Medical cannabis laws and opioid analgesic overdose mortality in the United States, 1999-2010. JAMA Intern Med [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Sep 5];174(10):1668. Available from: http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.4005.

  244. Chan NW, Burkhardt J, Flyr M. The effects of recreational marijuana legalization and dispensing on opioid mortality. Econ Inq [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 14];ecin.12819. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ecin.12819.

  245. Lucas P, Walsh Z, Crosby K, Callaway R, Belle-Isle L, Kay R, et al. Substituting cannabis for prescription drugs, alcohol and other substances among medical cannabis patients: the impact of contextual factors. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2016;35(3):326–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  246. Boehnke KF, Litinas E, Clauw DJ. Medical cannabis use is associated with decreased opiate medication use in a retrospective cross-sectional survey of patients with chronic pain. J Pain [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Sep 5];17(6):739–44. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1526590016005678.

  247. Boehnke KF, Scott JR, Litinas E, Sisley S, Williams DA, Clauw DJ. Pills to pot: observational analyses of cannabis substitution among medical cannabis users with chronic pain. J Pain [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 May 15]; Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1526590018307351.

  248. Shi Y, Liang D, Bao Y, An R, Wallace MS, Grant I. Recreational marijuana legalization and prescription opioids received by Medicaid enrollees. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jan 3];194:13–9. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871618307567.

  249. Shover CL, Davis CS, Gordon SC, Humphreys K. Association between medical cannabis laws and opioid overdose mortality has reversed over time. Proc Natl Acad Sci [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jun 26];116(26):12624–6. Available from: https://www.pnas.org/content/116/26/12624.

  250. Segura LE, Mauro CM, Levy NS, Khauli N, Philbin MM, Mauro PM, et al. Association of US medical marijuana laws with nonmedical prescription opioid use and prescription opioid use disorder. JAMA Netw Open [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 16];2(7):e197216. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31314118.

  251. Bhashyam AR, Heng M, Harris MB, Vrahas MS, Weaver MJ. Self-reported marijuana use is associated with increased use of prescription opioids following traumatic musculoskeletal injury. J Bone Jt Surg [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Apr 24];100(24):2095–102. Available from: http://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=00004623-201812190-00001.

  252. Bauer F, Donahoo WT, Hollis HW, Tsai AG, Pottorf BJ, Johnson JM, et al. Marijuana’s influence on pain scores, initial weight loss, and other bariatric surgical outcomes. Perm J [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Apr 24];22:18–002. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30010532.

  253. Caputi TL, Humphreys K. Medical marijuana users are more likely to use prescription drugs medically and nonmedically. J Addict Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Aug 24];12(4):295–9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29664895.

  254. Campbell G, Hall WD, Peacock A, Lintzeris N, Bruno R, Larance B, et al. Effect of cannabis use in people with chronic non-cancer pain prescribed opioids: findings from a 4-year prospective cohort study. Lancet Public Heal [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Aug 14];3(7):e341–50. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29976328.

  255. Rogers AH, Bakhshaie J, Buckner JD, Orr MF, Paulus DJ, Ditre JW, et al. Opioid and cannabis co-use among adults with chronic pain. J Addict Med [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Apr 24];1. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30557213.

  256. Hefner K, Sofuoglu M, Rosenheck R. Concomitant cannabis abuse/dependence in patients treated with opioids for non-cancer pain. Am J Addict. 2015;24(6):538–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  257. Regulating commercially legalized marijuana as a public health priority [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 26]. Available from: https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2015/01/23/10/17/regulating-commercially-legalized-marijuana-as-a-public-health-priority.

  258. Aguilar S, Gutiérrez V, Sánchez L, Nougier M. Medicinal cannabis policies and practices around the world [Internet]. [cited 2019 Sep 17]. Available from: http://fileserver.idpc.net/library/Medicinal cannabis briefing_ENG_FINAL.PDF.

  259. Bramness JG, Dom G, Gual A, Mann K, Wurst FM. A Survey On The Medical Use Of Cannabis In Europe: a position paper. Eur Addict Res [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Sep 17];24(4):201–5. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30134238.

  260. 62% of Americans favor legalizing marijuana. Pew Research Center [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 26]. Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/10/08/americans-support-marijuana-legalization/.

  261. Hammond D. Communicating THC levels and ‘dose’ to consumers: implications for product labelling and packaging of cannabis products in regulated markets. Int J Drug Policy [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Aug 6]; Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0955395919301823?via%3Dihub.

  262. McCambridge J, Mialon M, Hawkins B. Alcohol industry involvement in policymaking: a systematic review. Addiction [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Aug 15];113(9):1571–84. Available from:.

    Google Scholar 

  263. Smith SW, Atkin CK, Roznowski J. Are “drink responsibly” alcohol campaigns strategically ambiguous? Health Commun [Internet]. 2006 [cited 2019 Mar 28];20(1):1–11. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16813484.

  264. Smith KC, Cukier S, Jernigan DH. Defining strategies for promoting product through ‘drink responsibly’ messages in magazine ads for beer, spirits and alcopops. Drug Alcohol Depend [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2019 Mar 28];142:168–73. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24999061.

  265. Maani Hessari N, Petticrew M. What does the alcohol industry mean by ‘Responsible drinking’? A comparative analysis. J Public Health (Bangkok) [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2019 Mar 28];40(1):90–7. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article/40/1/90/3111234.

  266. Duncan DF, Nicholson T, Clifford P, Hawkins W, Petosa R. Harm reduction: an emerging new paradigm for drug education. J Drug Educ [Internet]. 1994 [cited 2019 Aug 21];24(4):281–90. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7869220.

  267. Marijuana laws in Colorado. CDPHE [Internet]. [cited 2019 Aug 12]. Available from: https://responsibilitygrowshere.com/.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stig Erik Sørheim .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Brooks, E., Sørheim, S.E. (2020). Looking at Marijuana Through the Lens of Public Health. In: Finn, K. (eds) Cannabis in Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45968-0_18

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45968-0_18

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-45967-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-45968-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics