Abstract
The jūnzǐ (君子), the moral exemplar presented by Confucius, is the ideal individual human to be aspired to via self-cultivation through her own moral effort. She is a person of irreproachable character embodying the Confucian Wǔ cháng (五常): The Five Constant Virtues of Humanity. These are: rén 仁 (humanity); lǐ 禮 (propriety or rites); yì 義 (appropriateness); zhì 智 (wisdom); and xìn 信 (faithfulness). The five virtues have at their heart the propagation of humanity rather than individuality; these virtues find their application in the jūnzǐ. However, of particular significance in terms of the character of a jūnzǐ, is the overarching virtue rén, which can be stated as: “Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire.” (Lau 12:2), and is embodied in the Confucian saying “The man of rén, wishing to establish his own character, also seeks to establish the character of others. Wishing to succeed, he also seeks to help others succeed” (Legge 6:30). What though does this have to do with teaching and the teacher? Teaching is a profession unlike any other; it involves the education of the young and those seeking to further their knowledge and skill in particular fields. Teachers are in a privileged position of authority, and can influence the views, beliefs, and behaviour of their students. For me the aforementioned virtues ought to form an important part of a teacher’s character. As Carr noted
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Notes
- 1.
These virtues shall be described in more detail later in this chapter.
- 2.
- 3.
A methodology whose roots can be traced to the ancient Greek and Roman grammar schools
- 4.
- 5.
With examples such as A.S. Neill at Summerhill School, and T. O’Neil at Prestolee, A. L. Stone in Birmingham, and Alex Bloom in Stepney, London. For a more rounded advocacy of progressivism see Fielding (2005) on Alex Bloom. Bloom from 1945–1955 initiated greater student democracy in his school in addition to being against punishment, regimentation and competition.
- 6.
See Peters (1966).
- 7.
- 8.
For more see Young 1971.
- 9.
However, see Standish (2007) who believes this is a distortion of Peters and colleagues’ views as: “it was never their intention that the curriculum should be a mere passing on of received ideas” (p. 46). Nonetheless, the liberal position could be criticized for its overemphasis on developing rational autonomy and intellectual pursuit, which for Standish is a narrow conceptualization of human life and morality (ibid.).
- 10.
For more see Barr and Tagg (1995).
- 11.
For more see Biesta (2013).
- 12.
Teaching children of nobles the useful art of rhetoric.
- 13.
For more on how the market agenda has affected education, see Connell (2013).
- 14.
I will not focus on the influence of the ideology of audit and accountability transposed from the business world to education, apart from saying that these have been important in undermining the authority of the teacher as the master-figure. For more on technical-managerial accountability see Gewirtz (2001) who sees this approach to accountability as being different to that which predated the 1988 Education Act in England and Wales. Prior to 1988 welfarism was characterized by a public-service ethos of equity, and social justice in the spirit of cooperation, whereas post-welfarism (‘new managerialism’) is centred around customer-orientated philosophy premised upon: efficiency, cost-effectiveness focused on free- market competition.
- 15.
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According to UNESCO Institute for Statistics, in 2014 there were 84.2 million teachers from pre-primary school to tertiary education (Roser 2017).
- 18.
This arises because each person, in a manner ‘authorizes’ the actions of a representative. For more, see Hobbes’ Leviathan, Ed. Oakshott (1962, pp. 105-6). 105–6. See also Bertrand de Jouvenel (2012, p. 29–31), who contrary to Hobbes thought society came into being not because of fear of external domination but by voluntary association in order to get one’s proposals accepted.
- 19.
See Peters’ (1959, Part I) gradation of authority which relies heavily on Max Weber’s tripartite conceptualization of authority: (1) traditional and legal-rational authority (to a particular status or an office); (2) the authority associated with ‘credentials of a personal sort’, namely a history of success in a given field; (3) the de facto watered-down version of Weber’s ‘charismatic’ authority attached to a figure exhibiting certain personal qualities.
- 20.
Even Rousseau’s teacher, although in the background, nonetheless creates the ‘natural’ environment in which the child is to explore herself; as such the progressive teacher remains in control of the ‘curriculum content’ and methodology.
- 21.
This is not to deny the existence of progressively minded, child-centred teachers who continue to gain respect from their students, nor that one has to possess mastery of a body of knowledge – as in the case of primary school teacher – for this to be the case.
- 22.
This scenario is not far-fetched: in England, academies (state funded schools run by private individuals and organizations) are exempt from employing teachers with the Qualified Teacher Status qualification. There is also a move toward the standardization of teaching practice in some multi-academy trusts, seeking consistency of application to ‘save’ time and make it ‘easy’ for teachers to be ‘successful’.
- 23.
As Aristotle warned in his Nicomachean Ethics (2009, I:3), one should not in principle give equal weight to the value judgements of the young as to the old. To fully understand the value of a particular virtue, work of art or religious ritual etc., one has to have examined and experienced its potential to deepen or enrich one’s life – and this takes time and effort.
- 24.
Although the question arises: Can one simply come to know-how to do something simply for example watching a Youtube video? And can one have certainty that the information (know-that) that one is reading/watching is ‘true’, or ‘complete’?
- 25.
Recently, OpenAI an AI company has come up with a GPT2 text generator that when fed text, anything from a few words to a whole page, is able to write the next new few sentences based on predictions of what should come next. Advances in technology means that we will become more susceptible to those who control technology.
- 26.
With the decline of the influence of the clergy who catered for the ethical aspect of a child’s character formation, and the reduction in parental oversight with parents having to work long hours to meet basic needs the teacher’s ethical role is becoming more prominent now.
- 27.
This admittedly is true for every other person as well, not only the teacher, but it matters particularly for teachers because of their position in loco parentis.
- 28.
See Peters’ (1970).
- 29.
- 30.
Is it not morally appropriate to teach students for example about the far-reaching consequences of structural inequality and how that can determine their life chances, even before they are born?
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As inscribed in the Virginia Declaration of Rights, the American Declaration of Independence, and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man, the European Convention on Human Rights, and the 1948 U.N. Declaration of Human Rights.
- 32.
The rights-based individual is not a uniquely Western concept, the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great first inscribed human rights in 539 BCE (see the Cyrus cylinder at the British Museum).
- 33.
Hobbes’ Leviathan, 1962: Chapter XII.
- 34.
- 35.
Li is discussed in detail in the next section.
- 36.
See next section.
- 37.
However, it is worth highlighting that when one enters the realm of comparative philosophy, one is hampered not only by the hermeneutics of temporo-spatial considerations, but also by the difficulty of translation. Translation often relies on using approximative concepts which often do not make for neat fits. As such, I will begin by offering English approximations of the various Confucian concepts, but thereafter will use the original Chinese word. Moreover, Confucianism should be seen as being sui generis, and Western concepts should not readily be imputed as a way of comparison.
- 38.
Head of the three families that ruled Confucius’ state Lu.
- 39.
That is to say, if you did not set an example by stealing from the people.
- 40.
As in the case of preferring to wear a ceremonial silk cap, rather than a linen one prescribed by ritual on the grounds that it was frugal to do so (Lau, 9:3).
- 41.
Shù and zhōng are also rén-dependent which is why when one considers helping others, it has to be for a right reason; it cannot be used to justify a blind loyalty to one’s superiors or kin.
- 42.
This is not to ignore the fact that this appellation has been exclusively used for men, but there is no reason for this to remain so in the twenty-first century.
- 43.
However, this harmony (he 和) should not be confused with seeking sameness, perfect agreement, or ‘stagnant concordance, [because] ‘harmony is sustained by energy generated through the interaction of different elements in creative tension. ...[F]riendliness or love is not a necessary condition for harmony (Li 2014: 386). Achieving he is akin to an orchestra coming together with its various ‘discordant’ instruments to create a much richer sound.
- 44.
Pietas is also found in Erasmus as ‘the moral conscience governing the proper relationship between individual and God as well as the individual and society’ (in Rummel 2017).
- 45.
See further Ni (2008).
- 46.
On this point see Van Norden (2008).
- 47.
Rosemont and Ames (2009).
- 48.
An ancient Chinese divination text, associated with mysticism and superstition. Confucius however, gave it pedagogical value by emphasizing its humanistic qualities and highlighting its philosophical tenets (Wan 1980, p. 197–8).
- 49.
It was instrumental in promoting social mobility.
- 50.
A well-rounded education can help broaden one’s mind to possibilities one may never have contemplated. Nonetheless, possessing such knowledge does not make one an ethical individual.
- 51.
To hold teachers to greater moral account is not unheard of. In Scotland, the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS) maintains the registration of teachers, and concerns itself with teachers’ moral character outside as well as inside the classroom. The Council expects and encourages self-reflective behaviour with regard to ethical and moral values and practice, and has the power of censure over teachers who fall short of the standards expected. In contrast, the Teaching Regulation Agency, although it is a similarly regulatory body in England, does not encourage reflective behaviour; it seems instead to be a punitive organization rather than a developmental one. See the GTCS Code of Professionalism and Conduct (GTCS 2012, p. 113).
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Shah, Q. (2020). Western Image of the Teacher and the Confucian Jūnzǐ. In: Lewin, D., Kenklies, K. (eds) East Asian Pedagogies. Contemporary Philosophies and Theories in Education, vol 15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45673-3_3
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